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Related Concept Videos

Crystal Growth: Principles of Crystallization01:25

Crystal Growth: Principles of Crystallization

Crystallization is a phase transformation process in which crystals are precipitated from a supersaturated solution or formed from other sources. During crystallization, atoms or molecules arrange themselves into a well-defined, rigid crystal lattice to minimize energy.
Initiating crystallization involves manipulating the concentration of the solute and the temperature of the solution. Since crystal growth occurs when the ratio of concentration and solubility of the solute in the solvent – the...
Recrystallization: Solid–Solution Equilibria01:10

Recrystallization: Solid–Solution Equilibria

Recrystallization is a purification technique used to separate impurities from solid compounds. In this technique, no chemical reactions occur. Instead, it exploits physical properties only, specifically, the solubility differences between the desired compound and impurities, either at a single temperature or at different temperatures, and under other selected conditions. The solid-solution equilibrium (solubility equilibrium) of each component in the solution represents a binary phase...
Precipitation Processes01:12

Precipitation Processes

The experimental conditions in a gravimetric analysis should be optimized to maximize the particle size and purity of the obtained precipitate. Ideally, the concentration of the precipitating reagent should be low with effective stirring to maintain low relative supersaturation for the growth of large crystals. In homogeneous precipitation, the precipitant is slowly generated by a chemical reaction in the solution to avoid local reagent excesses. For example, urea decomposes gradually to...
Solution Equilibrium and Saturation01:59

Solution Equilibrium and Saturation

Imagine adding a small amount of sugar to a glass of water, stirring until all the sugar has dissolved, and then adding a bit more. You can repeat this process until the sugar concentration of the solution reaches its natural limit, a limit determined primarily by the relative strengths of the solute-solute, solute-solvent, and solvent-solvent attractive forces. You can be certain that you have reached this limit because, no matter how long you stir the solution, undissolved sugar remains. The...
Colloidal precipitates01:09

Colloidal precipitates

The high insolubility of some precipitates can result in an unfavorable relative supersaturation. This can lead to colloidal particles with a large surface-to-mass ratio, where adsorption is promoted. For instance, in the precipitation of silver chloride, silver ions are adsorbed on the surface of the colloidal particles, forming a primary layer. This layer attracts ions of opposite charge (such as nitrate ions), forming a diffuse secondary layer of adsorbed ions. This electric double layer...
Determination of Crystal Structures01:29

Determination of Crystal Structures

In the late 1800s, the revelation that light extended beyond visible wavelengths led to the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen. Recognized as high-energy electromagnetic radiation with short wavelengths, X-rays prompted exploration into their interaction with crystals. Max von Laue proposed in 1912 that the periodic arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in crystals would cause them to diffract X-rays, a hypothesis confirmed through experiments with copper sulfate and zinc sulfide...

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Updated: Jun 23, 2026

Optimization of Crystal Growth for Neutron Macromolecular Crystallography
12:29

Optimization of Crystal Growth for Neutron Macromolecular Crystallography

Published on: March 13, 2021

Nucleation of crystals from solution: classical and two-step models.

Deniz Erdemir1, Alfred Y Lee, Allan S Myerson

  • 1Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois 60616, USA.

Accounts of Chemical Research
|May 1, 2009
PubMed
Summary

Classical nucleation theory fails to explain crystal formation. A two-step model, involving cluster formation and reorganization, better describes nucleation for diverse molecules, with organization being key.

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Last Updated: Jun 23, 2026

Optimization of Crystal Growth for Neutron Macromolecular Crystallography
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Growing Protein Crystals with Distinct Dimensions Using Automated Crystallization Coupled with In Situ Dynamic Light Scattering

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Area of Science:

  • * Materials Science
  • * Chemical Engineering
  • * Pharmaceutical Manufacturing

Background:

  • * Crystallization is crucial for product quality in chemical and pharmaceutical industries, impacting size, purity, morphology, and crystal structure.
  • * Controlling crystal properties, especially polymorphs for drug bioavailability, relies on understanding nucleation.
  • * Classical nucleation theory, while widely used, shows discrepancies with experimental results in solution crystallization.

Purpose of the Study:

  • * To review the limitations of classical nucleation theory.
  • * To discuss the development and applicability of the modern two-step nucleation model.
  • * To highlight the role of molecular organization in crystallization processes.

Main Methods:

  • * Review of existing experimental and theoretical studies on nucleation mechanisms.
  • * Analysis of the two-step nucleation model, initially proposed for protein crystallization.
  • * Examination of the applicability of the two-step model to both macromolecules and small organic molecules.

Main Results:

  • * The two-step nucleation model, involving solute cluster formation followed by ordering, is applicable to a wide range of molecules.
  • * Experimental and theoretical studies support the two-step mechanism as a more accurate description of solution crystallization.
  • * Molecular complexity correlates with increased organization time, suggesting organization is the rate-determining step.

Conclusions:

  • * The two-step nucleation model provides a more comprehensive understanding of crystallization from solutions.
  • * Identifying organization as the rate-determining step offers insights for optimizing crystallization conditions.
  • * Further research can lead to auxiliaries that enhance nucleation rates and prevent undesired solid forms, ensuring reproducible product manufacturing.