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Valence Bond Theory

Valence Bond Theory

Coordination compounds and complexes exhibit different colors, geometries, and magnetic behavior, depending on the metal atom/ion and ligands from which they are composed. In an attempt to explain the bonding and structure of coordination complexes, Linus Pauling proposed the valence bond theory, or VBT, using the concepts of hybridization and the overlapping of the atomic orbitals. According to VBT, the central metal atom or ion (Lewis acid) hybridizes to provide empty orbitals of suitable...

Atomic Nuclei: Magnetic Resonance

Atomic Nuclei: Magnetic Resonance

The number of nuclear spins aligned in the lower energy state is slightly greater than those in the higher energy state. In the presence of an external magnetic field, as the spins precess at the Larmor frequency, the excess population results in a net magnetization oriented along the z axis. When a pulse or a short burst of radio waves at the Larmor frequency is applied along the x axis, the coupling of frequencies causes resonance and flips the nuclear spins of the excess population from the...

Atomic Nuclei: Nuclear Relaxation Processes

Atomic Nuclei: Nuclear Relaxation Processes

In the absence of an external magnetic field, nuclear spin states are degenerate and randomly oriented. When a magnetic field is applied, the spins begin to precess and orient themselves along (lower energy) or against (higher energy) the direction of the field. At equilibrium, a slight excess population of spins exists in the lower energy state. Because the direction of the magnetic field is fixed as the z-axis, the precessing magnetic moments are randomly oriented around the z-axis. This...

Diamagnetism

Diamagnetism

Materials consisting of paired electrons have zero net magnetic moments. However, when these materials are placed under an external magnetic field, the moments opposite to the field are induced. Such materials are called diamagnets. Diamagnetism is the response of the diamagnets when placed in an external magnetic field.
Diamagnetism was discovered by Anton Brugmans in 1778 when he observed that bismuth gets repelled by magnetic fields, thus theorizing that diamagnets get repelled by magnets.

Ferromagnetism

Ferromagnetism

Materials like iron, nickel, and cobalt consist of magnetic domains, within which the magnetic dipoles are arranged parallel to each other. The magnetic dipoles are rigidly aligned in the same direction within a domain by quantum mechanical coupling among the atoms. This coupling is so strong that even thermal agitation at room temperature cannot break it. The result is that each domain has a net dipole moment. However, some materials have weaker coupling, and are ferromagnetic at lower...

Metal-Semiconductor Junctions

Metal-Semiconductor Junctions

The contact of metal and semiconductor can lead to the formation of a junction with either Schottky or Ohmic behavior.
Schottky Barriers
Schottky barriers arise when a metal with a work function (Φm) contacts a semiconductor with a different work function (Φs). Initially, electrons transfer until the Fermi levels of the metal and semiconductor align at equilibrium. For instance, if Φm > Φs, the semiconductor Fermi level is higher than the metal's before contact. The semiconductor's...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 10, 2026

Methods of Ex Situ and In Situ Investigations of Structural Transformations: The Case of Crystallization of Metallic Glasses

Methods of Ex Situ and In Situ Investigations of Structural Transformations: The Case of Crystallization of Metallic Glasses

Published on: June 7, 2018

The Kondo effect in ferromagnetic atomic contacts.

M Reyes Calvo¹, Joaquín Fernández-Rossier, Juan José Palacios

¹Departamento de Fisica Aplicada, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Alicante, San Vicente del Raspeig, E-03790 Alicante, Spain.

|May 2, 2009

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Atomic-scale contacts of iron, cobalt, and nickel unexpectedly exhibit Kondo physics. This phenomenon, driven by electron interactions at the nanoscale, reveals a new understanding of magnetic nanostructures.

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Last Updated: May 10, 2026

Methods of Ex Situ and In Situ Investigations of Structural Transformations: The Case of Crystallization of Metallic Glasses

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Published on: June 7, 2018

Visualizing Uniaxial-strain Manipulation of Antiferromagnetic Domains in Fe1+YTe Using a Spin-polarized Scanning Tunneling Microscope

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Optimizing Magnetic Force Microscopy Resolution and Sensitivity to Visualize Nanoscale Magnetic Domains

Optimizing Magnetic Force Microscopy Resolution and Sensitivity to Visualize Nanoscale Magnetic Domains

Published on: July 20, 2022

Area of Science:

Condensed Matter Physics
Materials Science
Nanotechnology

Background:

Archetypal ferromagnetic metals like iron, cobalt, and nickel exhibit distinct bulk electronic and magnetic properties.
Surface and nanoscale interactions can alter the electronic and magnetic behavior observed in bulk materials.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate electronic transport in atomic-scale contacts of pure ferromagnets.
To provide direct evidence for nanoscale modifications of magnetic properties.

Main Methods:

Fabrication and electrical characterization of atomic-scale contacts of iron, cobalt, and nickel.
Analysis of conductance characteristics to identify electronic transport phenomena.
Theoretical calculations to support experimental observations.

Main Results:

Atomic-scale ferromagnetic contacts unexpectedly displayed Kondo physics, characterized by the screening of local magnetic moments.
A Fano-Kondo resonance in conductance was observed, consistent with Kondo theory.
Material-dependent log-normal distributions of resonance width were found, varying with temperature.

Conclusions:

Coordination changes at the nanoscale significantly modify magnetism in ferromagnetic materials.
Electronic correlations and atomic-scale geometry are crucial for understanding magnetic nanostructures.
The study reveals Kondo physics in nanoscale ferromagnets, challenging bulk material assumptions.