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Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) that activate TSH receptors, leading to excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and resulting in hyperthyroidism.Among all causes of hyperthyroidism, Graves’ disease is the most common and can happen at any age, though it is more frequent in women. It produces a hypermetabolic state with features such as weight loss, tachycardia, tremor, and heat...

Graves' Disease I: Introduction

Graves' Disease I: Introduction

Graves' disease is an autoimmune disorder that causes hyperthyroidism, or overactivity of the thyroid gland. It results from autoantibodies called thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSIs), which bind to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptors, leading to overstimulation of hormone production and a hypermetabolic state.EtiologyAlthough considered idiopathic, Graves’ disease has well-established contributing factors. There is a strong genetic component, with increased prevalence in...

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The iodine is then...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 22, 2026

Computer-Aided Three-Dimensional Visualization in the Treatment of Locally Advanced Thyroid Cancer

Computer-Aided Three-Dimensional Visualization in the Treatment of Locally Advanced Thyroid Cancer

Published on: June 9, 2023

Multicentricity in the thyroid differentiated carcinoma.

José Francisco Salles Chagas¹, José Luís Braga de Aquino, Maria Beatriz Nogueira Pascoal

¹Hospital Heliópolis. josefcochagas@terra.com.br

Brazilian Journal of Otorhinolaryngology

|June 3, 2009

Summary

Differentiated thyroid carcinoma treatment remains debated. This study found a 23.8% contralateral lobe spread rate, supporting total thyroidectomy due to high risk and few complications in well-differentiated thyroid cancer.

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Area of Science:

Endocrinology
Surgical Oncology
Pathology

Background:

The optimal surgical approach for well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma is a subject of ongoing debate.
Understanding contralateral lobe involvement is crucial for treatment planning.

Purpose of the Study:

To assess the incidence of tumor invasion in the contralateral thyroid lobe.
To correlate surgical risks and benefits with potential complications of a secondary surgical procedure.

Main Methods:

Retrospective analysis of 27 patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma who underwent less than total thyroidectomy between 1998 and 2006.
Evaluation of patient demographics, surgical procedures, histopathology, and contralateral lobe status.
Analysis of complications including temporary/permanent dysphonia and hypoparathyroidism.

Main Results:

Contralateral lobe invasion was detected in 23.8% of patients.
The most common histopathological type was classical papillary carcinoma (18 cases).
Complications included temporary dysphonia (3 cases) and hypoparathyroidism (2 cases, one permanent).

Conclusions:

Total thyroidectomy is recommended for differentiated thyroid carcinomas due to a significant rate of contralateral spread (23.8%).
This procedure is associated with low mortality and minimal complications.