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Parental Care

Parental Care

Many animals exhibit parental care behavior, including feeding, grooming, and protecting young offspring. Parental care is universal in mammals and birds, which often have young that are born relatively helpless. Several species of insects and fish, as well as some amphibians, also care for their young.

Attachment

Attachment

Attachment is vital for infant development, as warm social interactions support growth and well-being. In a classic 1958 study by Harry Harlow, the significance of warmth and comfort in forming attachments was examined. Harlow separated newborn monkeys from their mothers and provided two artificial "mothers": one made of cold wire and the other covered in soft cloth. Despite the wire mother offering food, the infant monkeys preferred the comfort of the cloth mother, demonstrating that physical...

Imprinting

Imprinting

Behavioral imprinting is observed in some newborn animals and occurs when they develop strong and specific attachments to another animal (usually a parent) following brief, early-life exposures. Offspring imprint onto parents within a brief period after birth or hatching; this time window is called the critical period. Once imprinting occurs, the bond established between the parents and their offspring is usually long-lasting.

Development of the Oral Microbiota

Development of the Oral Microbiota

The establishment of the oral microbiome begins before birth, challenging the long-held belief that the fetal oral cavity is sterile. The presence of oral microbes such as Streptococcus and Fusobacterium in amniotic fluid suggests that microbial exposure may occur in utero, potentially through translocation from the maternal oral or gastrointestinal tract. This early colonization primes the neonatal immune system and sets the stage for subsequent microbial succession. Maternal health,...

Development of Human Microbiota

Development of Human Microbiota

The human microbiota begins developing at birth and undergoes continual change as we age. Infancy marks a critical period of microbial sensitivity, offering a “window of opportunity” during which beneficial microbes help mature the immune system. By age three, children typically develop a more stable and diverse microbial community. Newborns acquire microbes from their immediate environment; vaginal delivery favors maternal vaginal microbes, while cesarean births favor microbes from the skin...

Confidence Coefficient

Confidence Coefficient

The confidence coefficient is also known as the confidence level or degree of confidence. It is the percent expression for the probability, 1-α, that the confidence interval contains the true population parameter assuming that the confidence interval is obtained after sufficient unbiased sampling; for example, if the CL = 90%, then in 90 out of 100 samples the interval estimate will enclose the true population parameter. Here α is the area under the curve, distributed equally under both the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 22, 2026

A Common Marmoset Model of Mother-Infant Intervention for Breastfeeding Disorders in the Presence of Paternal Inhibition and Maternal Neglect

A Common Marmoset Model of Mother-Infant Intervention for Breastfeeding Disorders in the Presence of Paternal Inhibition and Maternal Neglect

Published on: September 22, 2023

Confident commitment is a key factor for sustained breastfeeding.

Alexis Avery¹, Kristine Zimmermann, Patricia W Underwood

¹New Mexico Department of Health, Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA.

Birth (Berkeley, Calif.)

|June 4, 2009

Summary

Successful breastfeeding hinges on "confident commitment," a learned skill encompassing belief in the process and personal ability. This commitment helps mothers overcome challenges and lack of support, crucial for sustained breastfeeding.

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Area of Science:

Sociology of Health
Maternal Health Studies
Lactation Science

Background:

Limited understanding of factors differentiating successful from unsuccessful breastfeeding.
Need to identify key processes influencing breastfeeding decisions in diverse populations.

Purpose of the Study:

To identify processes contributing to breastfeeding decisions among Caucasian and African American women.
To understand the characteristics of women who breastfeed successfully.

Main Methods:

Secondary analysis of data from 24 focus groups with pregnant and postpartum women.
Utilized a modified grounded theory approach for data interpretation.
Data collected from diverse participants in three major U.S. cities.

Main Results:

A key process for successful breastfeeding identified as "confident commitment."
This commitment involves confidence in breastfeeding, personal ability, and dedication to overcoming obstacles.
"Confident commitment" emerged as a critical factor distinguishing successful breastfeeding outcomes.

Conclusions:

Breastfeeding is presented as a learned skill, not solely an innate ability.
Achieving "confident commitment" prenatally enables mothers to navigate breastfeeding challenges and insufficient support.
The absence of "confident commitment" can lead to the abandonment of breastfeeding intentions when faced with difficulties.