Cardiovascular and pulmonary effects of morphine in conscious pigs

Cardiovascular and pulmonary effects of morphine (1 mg/kg bolus iv) were investigated in conscious chronically instrumented pigs, a species exhibiting an excitable response. Control animals received an equivalent volume (less than 2 ml) of normal saline. Morphine induced an immediate but small increase in cardiac output and substantial increases in heart rate, mean systemic and pulmonary arterial pressure, left and right ventricular work, hematocrit, and hemoglobin concentration, but did not change stroke volume or systemic vascular resistance. Morphine administration also led to a gradual increase in ventilatory rate and rapid increases in tidal volume, expired and alveolar ventilation, ventilation-perfusion ratio, and shunt fraction. In addition, morphine administration produced substantial decrements in arterial and mixed venous PO2, hemoglobin saturation and mixed venous O2 content; no change in arterial O2 content; and a widening of the arteriovenous O2 difference. Arterial O2 transport was increased slightly. Finally, it produced substantial increments in arterial and mixed venous PCO2 and substantial decrements in arterial and mixed venous pH. It was concluded that arterial O2 delivery did not adequately rise to meet tissue O2 demand, in part because an appropriate increase in cardiac output was attenuated by morphine, and in part because morphine impaired pulmonary gas exchange.