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Related Concept Videos

Epilepsy and Seizures: Overview01:24

Epilepsy and Seizures: Overview

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disease marked by recurrent, unpredictable seizures. These seizures are caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the brain, leading to behavior, sensation, or consciousness alterations. They can also cause transient impairment of awareness, interfering with daily activities.
Various factors can trigger epilepsy, including genetic factors, brain damage, metabolic causes, and unknown etiology. Diagnosis of epilepsy involves electroencephalography (EEG), which...
Epilepsy ll: Types01:22

Epilepsy ll: Types

Recurrent seizures, stemming from abnormal electrical activity in the brain, are the defining characteristic of epilepsy, a chronic neurological condition. Because seizure features vary greatly, epilepsy is classified using two systems: by seizure type and by epilepsy syndromes. These classifications enable clinicians to describe seizure patterns and select suitable treatment strategies.I. Classification by Seizure Type1. Focal EpilepsyFocal epilepsy begins in one hemisphere of the brain.
Seizures l: Introduction01:20

Seizures l: Introduction

Understanding seizures and epilepsy relies on key definitions that help in recognizing, classifying, and managing these disorders. These definitions provide a framework for recognizing, classifying, and managing seizure disorders.DefinitionsA seizure is a sudden, abnormal burst of electrical activity in the brain that can cause changes in awareness, movement, sensation, or behavior, depending on the area involved. Epilepsy is a chronic condition characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures,...
Seizures: Classification01:13

Seizures: Classification

Epilepsy is primarily characterized by unpredictable seizures, either provoked by an identifiable factor, such as injury or illness, or unprovoked, occurring spontaneously without apparent cause.
Seizures are typically classified into two main categories: focal and generalized seizures.
Focal Seizures
Focal seizures originate from specific regions of the brain. These seizures are further sub-classified into two types:
Antiepileptic Drugs: Potassium Channel Activators01:20

Antiepileptic Drugs: Potassium Channel Activators

Ezocgabine or retigabine, an antiepileptic drug of remarkable efficacy, has revolutionized the management of seizures. It is a potassium channel activator, explicitly targeting the family of Q subtype potassium channels. It enhances the transmembrane potassium currents, regulating neuronal excitability. This action stabilizes the resting membrane potential, a pivotal factor in mitigating the hyperexcitability that characterizes epilepsy.
Ezogabine has gained approval as an adjunctive treatment...
Seizures ll: Types01:19

Seizures ll: Types

Seizures are sudden bursts of abnormal electrical discharge in the brain that interfere with normal function. They are commonly divided into three groups: focal seizures, generalized seizures, and other types that do not fit neatly into either category.Focal SeizuresFocal seizures begin in a single brain region. When awareness is preserved, they are called focal aware seizures and may cause sensations such as tingling, unusual smells, or flashing lights. When awareness is impaired, they are...

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Diagnosis, Etiology, and Treatment of Nonconvulsive Status Epilepticus, a Semiological Oriented Review.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 22, 2026

Network Analysis of Foramen Ovale Electrode Recordings in Drug-resistant Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Patients
09:32

Network Analysis of Foramen Ovale Electrode Recordings in Drug-resistant Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Patients

Published on: December 18, 2016

Refractory epilepsy: a clinically oriented review.

Pedro Beleza1

  • 1Epilepsy Group, Department of Neurology, São Marcos Hospital, Braga, Portugal. beleza.76@gmail.com

European Neurology
|June 13, 2009
PubMed
Summary

Approximately one-third of epilepsy patients are refractory to antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). Management involves detailed assessment, considering risk factors and exploring surgical or new drug options for better seizure control.

Area of Science:

  • Neurology
  • Epileptology
  • Pharmacology

Background:

  • Epilepsy affects millions globally, with a significant portion experiencing refractory seizures despite treatment.
  • Refractory epilepsy poses challenges in diagnosis, syndrome classification, and treatment strategy development.
  • Understanding refractoriness is crucial for improving patient outcomes and quality of life.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To provide an overview of patient management for refractory epilepsy in clinical practice.
  • To identify risk factors associated with epilepsy refractoriness.
  • To discuss current and emerging treatment strategies, including surgery and new antiepileptic drugs.

Main Methods:

  • Review of clinical practice guidelines and literature on refractory epilepsy management.

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Electrophoretic Delivery of γ-aminobutyric Acid (GABA) into Epileptic Focus Prevents Seizures in Mice
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Electrophoretic Delivery of γ-aminobutyric Acid (GABA) into Epileptic Focus Prevents Seizures in Mice

Published on: May 16, 2019

Generation and On-Demand Initiation of Acute Ictal Activity in Rodent and Human Tissue
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Generation and On-Demand Initiation of Acute Ictal Activity in Rodent and Human Tissue

Published on: January 19, 2019

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Network Analysis of Foramen Ovale Electrode Recordings in Drug-resistant Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Patients
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Published on: December 18, 2016

Electrophoretic Delivery of γ-aminobutyric Acid (GABA) into Epileptic Focus Prevents Seizures in Mice
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Electrophoretic Delivery of γ-aminobutyric Acid (GABA) into Epileptic Focus Prevents Seizures in Mice

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  • Identification and analysis of established risk factors for treatment resistance.
  • Evaluation of the efficacy of surgical interventions and novel antiepileptic drugs.

    • Main Results:

    • About one-third of newly diagnosed epilepsy patients do not achieve seizure control with initial medical therapy.
    • Key risk factors for refractoriness include epilepsy type, onset, seizure frequency, and EEG findings.
    • Surgical options offer curative to palliative benefits, while new antiepileptic drugs benefit approximately one-third of patients.

    Conclusions:

    • Refractory epilepsy requires comprehensive assessment to guide treatment strategies.
    • Risk factor identification aids in predicting and managing treatment resistance.
    • Ongoing research into novel treatments and underlying mechanisms is essential for advancing epilepsy care.