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Related Concept Videos

Bonding in Metals02:32

Bonding in Metals

Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Drüde called the “Electron Sea Model”.
Chemical Bonds02:40

Chemical Bonds


Atoms participate in a chemical bond formation to acquire a completed valence-shell electron configuration similar to that of the noble gas nearest to it in atomic number. Ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds are some of the important types of chemical bonds. Bond energy and bond length determine the strength of a chemical bond.
Types of Chemical Bonds
An ionic bond is formed due to electrostatic attraction between cations and anions. Often, the ions are formed by the transfer of electrons from...
Types of Chemical Bonds02:37

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and formation of different bonds. Chemical bonding is central to chemistry; it explains how atoms or ions bond together to form molecules. It explains why some bonds are strong and others are weak, or why one carbon bonds with two oxygens and not three; why water is H2O and not H4O.
Types of Chemical Bonds02:37

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and formation of different bonds. Chemical bonding is central to chemistry; it explains how atoms or ions bond together to form molecules. It explains why some bonds are strong and others are weak, or why one carbon bonds with two oxygens and not three; why water is H2O and not H4O.
Introduction to Chemical Bonds01:01

Introduction to Chemical Bonds

Chemical Bonds
The electrons of the outermost energy level determine the energetic stability of the atom and its tendency to form chemical bonds with other atoms. The innermost electron shell has a maximum capacity of two electrons, but the next two electron shells can each have a maximum of eight electrons. This is known as the octet rule, which states that, with the exception of the innermost shell, atoms are most stable energetically when they have eight electrons in their valence shell, the...
Reaction Mechanisms03:06

Reaction Mechanisms

Chemical reactions often occur in a stepwise fashion, involving two or more distinct reactions taking place in a sequence. A balanced equation indicates the reacting species and the product species, but it reveals no details about how the reaction occurs at the molecular level. The reaction mechanism (or reaction path) provides details regarding the precise, step-by-step process by which a reaction occurs.
For instance, the decomposition of ozone appears to follow a mechanism with two steps:

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 22, 2026

Reliable Mechanochemistry: Protocols for Reproducible Outcomes of Neat and Liquid Assisted Ball-mill Grinding Experiments
13:05

Reliable Mechanochemistry: Protocols for Reproducible Outcomes of Neat and Liquid Assisted Ball-mill Grinding Experiments

Published on: January 23, 2018

Mechanochemistry: one bond at a time.

Jian Liang1, Julio M Fernández

  • 1Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027.

ACS Nano
|July 4, 2009
PubMed
Summary

Single-molecule force-clamp spectroscopy reveals how force affects disulfide bond cleavage kinetics. This technique elucidates chemical reaction mechanisms at the single-molecule level by measuring force-dependent reaction rates.

Area of Science:

  • Biophysics
  • Chemical Kinetics
  • Protein Mechanics

Background:

  • Single-molecule force-clamp spectroscopy applies constant force to mechanically denature proteins.
  • Disulfide bonds within protein modules can be probed to study chemical kinetics of bond cleavage under force.
  • Previous work established force-dependent thiol/disulfide exchange reaction rates.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the chemical kinetics of disulfide bond cleavage under varying stretching forces at the single-bond level.
  • To elucidate the mechanisms and energy landscapes of S-S bond cleavage reactions using single-molecule measurements.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized single-molecule force-clamp spectroscopy to apply constant force to polyproteins containing disulfide bonds.
  • Measured the rate of disulfide bond cleavage in the presence of various chemical reducing agents.

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Demonstrating the Simplicity and In Situ Temperature Monitoring of the Mechanochemical Synthesis of Metal Chalcogenides Suitable for Thermoelectrics
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Demonstrating the Simplicity and In Situ Temperature Monitoring of the Mechanochemical Synthesis of Metal Chalcogenides Suitable for Thermoelectrics

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  • Analyzed force-dependent reduction rates using an Arrhenius model to extract the bond elongation parameter, Δx(r).

    • Main Results:

    • Disulfide bond cleavage rates are significantly accelerated by reducing agents even at sub-rupture forces.
    • Measured the bond elongation parameter, Δx(r), for S(N)2 reactions with different nucleophiles and enzymes.
    • Observed distinct force-response behaviors: small nucleophiles showed monotonically increasing rates, while thioredoxin enzymes exhibited complex rate regimes.

    Conclusions:

    • Single-molecule force-clamp spectroscopy provides unprecedented access to chemical reaction mechanisms.
    • The Δx(r) parameter aids in depicting energy landscapes and elucidating reaction mechanisms at the single-molecule level.
    • Demonstrated the technique's power in differentiating reaction pathways influenced by force and molecular structure.