Jove
Visualize
Contact Us
JoVE
x logofacebook logolinkedin logoyoutube logo
ABOUT JoVE
OverviewLeadershipBlogJoVE Help Center
AUTHORS
Publishing ProcessEditorial BoardScope & PoliciesPeer ReviewFAQSubmit
LIBRARIANS
TestimonialsSubscriptionsAccessResourcesLibrary Advisory BoardFAQ
RESEARCH
JoVE JournalMethods CollectionsJoVE Encyclopedia of ExperimentsArchive
EDUCATION
JoVE CoreJoVE BusinessJoVE Science EducationJoVE Lab ManualFaculty Resource CenterFaculty Site
Terms & Conditions of Use
Privacy Policy
Policies

Related Concept Videos

Dementia l: Introduction01:22

Dementia l: Introduction

Dementia is an acquired, progressive syndrome characterized by a decline in multiple cognitive domains severe enough to impair daily functioning and reduce independence. Although memory loss is a central feature, the diagnosis requires additional deficits involving language, executive function, visuospatial skills, judgment, calculation, or abstract reasoning. These cognitive impairments reflect underlying neurodegenerative or vascular processes that gradually disrupt neuronal networks...
Dementia01:30

Dementia

Dementia is a collective term for cognitive disorders primarily affecting memory, thinking, and reasoning. It is not a specific disease but a syndrome, with Alzheimer's disease being the most common cause, accounting for approximately 60-80% of cases. Other types include vascular dementia, Lewy body dementia, and frontotemporal dementia. Dementia affects millions worldwide, particularly older adults, though it is not a normal part of aging.
The progression of dementia is generally gradual.

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by
Same author

Highlights.

Journal of the Chinese Medical Association : JCMA·2026
Same author

Continuous At-Home Monitoring of Nighttime Bed Behavior in Frontotemporal Dementia.

Neurology open access·2026
Same author

Global cognitive dysfunction and <i>β</i>-amyloid neuropathology in late-life and treatment-resistant major depression.

Psychological medicine·2026
Same author

Assessing the Adaptive/Maladaptive Strategies of Mastication in Older Taiwanese Individuals Using the Masticatory Adaptation Experience Questionnaire (MAEQ).

Journal of oral rehabilitation·2026
Same author

Pharmacological management of agitation in dementia: An evidence-based review with expert consensus.

Journal of the Chinese Medical Association : JCMA·2026
Same author

Biomarkers.

Alzheimer's & dementia : the journal of the Alzheimer's Association·2026

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 21, 2026

The 4 Mountains Test: A Short Test of Spatial Memory with High Sensitivity for the Diagnosis of Pre-dementia Alzheimer's Disease
06:23

The 4 Mountains Test: A Short Test of Spatial Memory with High Sensitivity for the Diagnosis of Pre-dementia Alzheimer's Disease

Published on: October 13, 2016

A simple method to rule out dementia with temporal orientation.

Rochelle E Tractenberg1, Myron F Weiner, Paul S Aisen

  • 1Department of Neurology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA. ret7@georgetown.edu

Alzheimer'S & Dementia : the Journal of the Alzheimer'S Association
|July 15, 2009
PubMed
Summary

The four-item test of temporal orientation (TTO) reliably predicts normal cognitive function over time, making it useful for monitoring aging populations. Its negative predictive value remains strong, aiding in longitudinal cognitive assessments.

More Related Videos

Abbiategrasso Brain Bank Protocol for Collecting, Processing and Characterizing Aging Brains
12:28

Abbiategrasso Brain Bank Protocol for Collecting, Processing and Characterizing Aging Brains

Published on: June 3, 2020

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 21, 2026

The 4 Mountains Test: A Short Test of Spatial Memory with High Sensitivity for the Diagnosis of Pre-dementia Alzheimer's Disease
06:23

The 4 Mountains Test: A Short Test of Spatial Memory with High Sensitivity for the Diagnosis of Pre-dementia Alzheimer's Disease

Published on: October 13, 2016

Abbiategrasso Brain Bank Protocol for Collecting, Processing and Characterizing Aging Brains
12:28

Abbiategrasso Brain Bank Protocol for Collecting, Processing and Characterizing Aging Brains

Published on: June 3, 2020

Area of Science:

  • Gerontology
  • Neuroscience
  • Cognitive Psychology

Background:

  • Assessing cognitive function in aging populations is crucial for early detection of neurodegenerative diseases.
  • Longitudinal studies require reliable tools to monitor cognitive changes over extended periods.
  • The Mini-Mental State Examination provides a basis for developing brief cognitive screening tools.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To evaluate the longitudinal performance of a four-item test of temporal orientation (TTO).
  • To determine the TTO's sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values over four years in aging cohorts.
  • To assess the TTO's utility in monitoring cognitive function in longitudinal aging studies.

Main Methods:

  • Two large US cohorts (352 normal elderly, 98 very mild Alzheimer's disease) were studied over four annual visits.
  • Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values (PV+, PV-) of the TTO were calculated for each visit.
  • The TTO dichotomized responses: 4 correct answers indicated "oriented to time," 0-3 indicated "not oriented to time."

Main Results:

  • Sensitivity to Alzheimer's disease ranged from 46.0% to 69.2%, with positive predictive value (PV+) from 32.1% to 49.5%.
  • Specificity for normal cognition decreased from 93.2% to 81.3% over four years.
  • The TTO demonstrated strong and stable negative predictive value (PV-) for normal cognitive function, ranging from 92.8% to 95.4%.

Conclusions:

  • The dichotomized TTO exhibits stable and strong negative predictive value, suitable for monitoring normal cognitive function in longitudinal studies.
  • The TTO can be a valuable tool for tracking cognitive status in research settings where cognition is not the primary focus.
  • Further prospective validation studies are recommended to confirm the TTO's utility.