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Preparation of Nitriles

Preparation of Nitriles

One of the common methods to prepare nitriles is the dehydration of amides. This method requires strong dehydrating agents like phosphorous pentoxide or boiling acetic anhydride for converting amides to nitriles. Another reagent namely, thionyl chloride also accomplishes the dehydration of amides, where amide acts as a nucleophile. The first step of the mechanism involves the nucleophilic attack by the amide on the thionyl chloride to form an intermediate. In the next step, the electron pairs...

Preparation of Amides

Preparation of Amides

Amides are synthesized by treating carboxylic acids with amines in the presence of dehydrating agents like dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC).
The DCC-promoted synthesis of amides begins with the protonation of DCC by carboxylic acid. The protonation makes it a better acceptor. Next, the addition of carboxylate to the protonated carbodiimide gives a reactive acylating agent.
Subsequently, the amine acts as a nucleophile that attacks the acylating agent to form a tetrahedral intermediate. In the...

Preparation of Carboxylic Acids: Overview

Preparation of Carboxylic Acids: Overview

There are various methods for the preparation of carboxylic acids. For example, oxidation of primary alcohols or aldehydes using strong oxidizing agents results in a carboxylic acid. Aldehydes can also be oxidized in the presence of mild oxidizing agents.

Preparation of Samples for Electron Microscopy

Preparation of Samples for Electron Microscopy

To be visualized by an electron microscope, either transmission or scanning, biological samples need to be fixed (stabilized) so the electron beam does not destroy them and dried thoroughly (desiccated/dehydrated) so the vacuum does not affect them. Fixation needs to be done as quickly as possible because the sample properties will start changing as soon as it is removed from its natural environment. For example, in a tissue sample, the oxygen levels begin decreasing, causing an altered...

Preparation of Acid Anhydrides

Preparation of Acid Anhydrides

One of the methods for preparing symmetrical or unsymmetrical acid anhydrides involves the treatment of acid chlorides with the sodium salt of carboxylic acids. The reaction proceeds via a nucleophilic acyl substitution.
The carboxylate ion acts as a nucleophile that attacks the carbonyl carbon of the acid chloride to form a tetrahedral intermediate. Subsequently, the re-formation of the carbonyl group with the loss of the chloride ion as a leaving group leads to the formation of an acid...

Preparation of Diols and Pinacol Rearrangement

Preparation of Diols and Pinacol Rearrangement

Compounds bearing two hydroxyl groups are known as diols. When the hydroxyl groups are located on adjacent carbon atoms, the diols are called vicinal diols or glycols. Under acidic conditions, vicinal diols undergo a specific reaction called pinacol rearrangement.
The reaction begins with transferring a proton from the acid catalyst to one of the hydroxyl groups, producing an oxonium ion.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 21, 2026

Applying Hyperspectral Reflectance Imaging to Investigate the Palettes and the Techniques of Painters

Applying Hyperspectral Reflectance Imaging to Investigate the Palettes and the Techniques of Painters

Published on: June 18, 2021

Preparing the references.

W C G Peh¹, K H Ng

¹Singapore Medical Journal, 2 College Road, Singapore. smj.editor@sma.org.sg

Singapore Medical Journal

|August 1, 2009

Summary

Accurate references are crucial for scientific papers, providing background and enabling comparison. Prioritize PubMed-listed journal articles and adhere to journal-specific formatting, preferably Vancouver style.

Area of Science:

Scientific publishing
Scholarly communication

Background:

References provide essential background information in scientific papers.
They allow researchers to contextualize their work within existing literature.

Purpose of the Study:

To outline best practices for citing references in scientific manuscripts.
To emphasize the importance of accuracy, accessibility, and preferred citation styles.

Main Methods:

Adherence to established reference formatting systems (Vancouver, Harvard).
Prioritization of journal articles indexed in PubMed for retrievability.
Ensuring accuracy and accessibility of all cited sources.

Main Results:

Accurate references are fundamental for scientific integrity and reproducibility.

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Creating and Applying a Reference to Facilitate the Discussion and Classification of Proteins in a Diverse Group

Creating and Applying a Reference to Facilitate the Discussion and Classification of Proteins in a Diverse Group

Published on: August 16, 2017

Preparation of Food Samples Using Homogenization and Microwave-Assisted Wet Acid Digestion for Multi-Element Determination with ICP-MS

Preparation of Food Samples Using Homogenization and Microwave-Assisted Wet Acid Digestion for Multi-Element Determination with ICP-MS

Published on: December 22, 2023

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Last Updated: Jun 21, 2026

Applying Hyperspectral Reflectance Imaging to Investigate the Palettes and the Techniques of Painters

Applying Hyperspectral Reflectance Imaging to Investigate the Palettes and the Techniques of Painters

Published on: June 18, 2021

Creating and Applying a Reference to Facilitate the Discussion and Classification of Proteins in a Diverse Group

Creating and Applying a Reference to Facilitate the Discussion and Classification of Proteins in a Diverse Group

Published on: August 16, 2017

Preparation of Food Samples Using Homogenization and Microwave-Assisted Wet Acid Digestion for Multi-Element Determination with ICP-MS

Preparation of Food Samples Using Homogenization and Microwave-Assisted Wet Acid Digestion for Multi-Element Determination with ICP-MS

Published on: December 22, 2023

PubMed-indexed articles and the Vancouver style are preferred for broader accessibility.

Strict adherence to journal guidelines is essential for publication.

Conclusions:

Proper reference management enhances the credibility and impact of scientific research.
Following established guidelines ensures that research is easily verifiable and builds upon existing knowledge.