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Parkinson disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder primarily affecting movement, with additional non-motor features. Its pathophysiology involves complex interactions among genetic susceptibility, environmental exposures, and cellular dysfunction, including dopaminergic neuron loss, protein aggregation, and mitochondrial impairment.Selective NeurodegenerationA key feature is the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, leading to reduced...

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Updated: Jun 20, 2026

Dynamic Digital Biomarkers of Motor and Cognitive Function in Parkinson's Disease

Dynamic Digital Biomarkers of Motor and Cognitive Function in Parkinson's Disease

Published on: July 24, 2019

The second brain and Parkinson's disease.

Thibaud Lebouvier¹, Tanguy Chaumette, Sébastien Paillusson

¹INSERM U913, CHU Nantes, Nantes, France.

The European Journal of Neuroscience

|August 29, 2009

Summary

Parkinson's disease pathology may begin in the gut's enteric nervous system (ENS) before affecting the brain. Early ENS lesions suggest a potential route for environmental factors initiating Parkinson's disease (PD).

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Last Updated: Jun 20, 2026

Dynamic Digital Biomarkers of Motor and Cognitive Function in Parkinson's Disease

Dynamic Digital Biomarkers of Motor and Cognitive Function in Parkinson's Disease

Published on: July 24, 2019

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Gastroenterology
Pathology

Background:

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second leading neurodegenerative disorder.
Traditionally, PD pathology was linked to the substantia nigra in the brain.
Emerging evidence highlights PD as a multicentric disease affecting extra-nigral structures, including the enteric nervous system (ENS).

Purpose of the Study:

To review studies on the ENS in Parkinson's disease patients and animal models.
To explore the ENS's role in PD pathophysiology and gastrointestinal dysfunction.
To discuss strategies for understanding the ENS's involvement in PD.

Main Methods:

Review of existing scientific literature on Parkinson's disease and the enteric nervous system.
Analysis of studies involving human patients and animal models of PD.
Discussion of current research strategies and future directions.

Main Results:

Enteric nervous system lesions in PD can precede central nervous system involvement.
The ENS may serve as an early site for pathological processes in PD (Braak's hypothesis).
Alterations in the ENS are implicated in the gastrointestinal symptoms common in Parkinson's disease.

Conclusions:

The enteric nervous system plays a significant role in the early stages of Parkinson's disease.
The ENS may be a critical pathway for the initiation of PD pathology.
Understanding ENS involvement is crucial for addressing PD pathophysiology and associated gastrointestinal issues.