Bio-analysis of forensically relevant drugs in alternative matrices by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Cannabis is the most frequently detected illicit drug in the Western world, e.g. in cases of driving under the influence of drugs (DUID), whereas benzodiazepines comprise the most abused licit drugs and have been linked with drug-facilitated sexual assault cases (DFSA). In recent years, remarkable advances in sensitive analytical techniques have enabled the analysis of drugs in alternative matrices such as oral fluid and hair. These specimens allow easy, non-invasive sampling, which can be achieved under close supervision to prevent adulteration or substitution of the samples. The volume is often limited and to achieve the required analytical sensitivity, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) methods for the detection of cannabis and benzodiazepines in oral fluid and hair were developed. After validation, these methods were applied to genuine samples to assess: (a) the validity of oral fluid to detect recent cannabis consumption, (b) the Dräger Drug Test as an on-site oral fluid test, and (c) the applicability of hair testing in forensic cases. The latter led to new insights into metabolic conversions between benzodiazepines; this knowledge may avoid potentially erratic conclusions regarding DFSA. Finally, benzodiazepines are also frequently encountered in post-mortem cases. An LCMS-MS method to detect benzodiazepines in larvae and puparia of insects rearing on corpses was developed and validated. In conclusion, this research aimed at combining the usefulness of alternative matrices with the analytical power of LC-MS-MS. Final outcome is a number of sensitive and validated methods ready for use in routine analysis.