Velocity-dependent changes of rotational axes in the non-visual control of unconstrained 3D arm motions

We examined the roles of inertial (e(3)), shoulder-centre of mass (SH-CM) and shoulder-elbow articular (SH-EL) rotation axes in the non-visual control of unconstrained 3D arm rotations. Subjects rotated the arm in elbow configurations that yielded either a constant or variable separation between these axes. We hypothesized that increasing the motion frequency and the task complexity would result in the limbs' rotational axis to correspond to e(3) in order to minimize rotational resistances. Results showed two velocity-dependent profiles wherein the rotation axis coincided with the SH-EL axis for S and I velocities and then in the F velocity shifted to either a SH-CM/e(3) trade-off axis for one profile, or to no preferential axis for the other. A third profile was velocity-independent, with the SH-CM/e(3) trade-off axis being adopted. Our results are the first to provide evidence that the rotational axis of a multi-articulated limb may change from a geometrical axis of rotation to a mass or inertia based axis as motion frequency increases. These findings are discussed within the framework of the minimum inertia tensor model (MIT), which shows that rotations about e(3) reduce the amount of joint muscle torque that must be produced by employing the interaction torque to assist movement.