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Related Concept Videos

The Central Dogma01:25

The Central Dogma

Overview
The Central Dogma01:20

The Central Dogma

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between DNA and Proteins
In the early 1900s, scientists discovered that DNA stores all the information needed for cellular functions and that proteins perform most of these functions. However, the mechanisms of converting genetic information into functional proteins remained unknown for many years. Initially, it was believed that a single gene is...
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The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central dogma, which states that genes specify the sequence of mRNAs, which in turn specify the sequence of amino acids making up all proteins. The decoding of one molecule to another is performed by specific proteins and RNAs. Because the information stored in DNA is so central to cellular function, it makes intuitive sense that the cell would make mRNA copies of this information for protein synthesis...
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Leaky Scanning

During most eukaryotic translation processes, the small 40S ribosome subunit scans an mRNA from its 5' end until it encounters the first start AUG codon. The large 60S ribosomal subunit then joins the smaller one to initiate protein synthesis. The location of the translation initiation is largely determined by the nucleotides near the start codon as there may be multiple translation initiation sites present on the mRNA.  Marilyn Kozak discovered that the sequence RCCAUGG (where R stands for...
tRNA Activation02:26

tRNA Activation

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are present in both eukaryotes and bacteria. Though eukaryotes have 20 different aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases to couple to 20 amino acids, many bacteria do not have genes for all of these aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. Despite this, they still use all 20 amino acids to synthesize their proteins. For instance, some bacteria do not have the gene encoding the enzyme that couples glutamine with its partner tRNA. In these organisms, one enzyme adds glutamic acid to all of the...
tRNA Activation02:26

tRNA Activation

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are present in both eukaryotes and bacteria. Though eukaryotes have 20 different aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases to couple to 20 amino acids, many bacteria do not have genes for all of these aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. Despite this, they still use all 20 amino acids to synthesize their proteins. For instance, some bacteria do not have the gene encoding the enzyme that couples glutamine with its partner tRNA. In these organisms, one enzyme adds glutamic acid to all of the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 20, 2026

Residue-specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids into Model Proteins Using an Escherichia coli Cell-free Transcription-translation System
11:47

Residue-specific Incorporation of Noncanonical Amino Acids into Model Proteins Using an Escherichia coli Cell-free Transcription-translation System

Published on: August 1, 2016

Universal function-specificity of codon usage.

Hamed Shateri Najafabadi1, Hani Goodarzi, Reza Salavati

  • 1Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, 21111 Lakeshore Road, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Montreal, Quebec, H9X3V9, Canada.

Nucleic Acids Research
|September 24, 2009
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Synonymous codon usage synchronizes protein expression with environmental changes across organisms. This suggests cells dynamically adjust tRNA levels to adapt protein production, impacting gene function and cellular responses.

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Area of Science:

  • Molecular Biology
  • Genomics
  • Evolutionary Biology

Background:

  • Synonymous codon usage influences average protein expression in microorganisms.
  • Its role in dynamic expression changes and selective factors in higher eukaryotes remain unclear.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate if codon usage synchronizes translation efficiency with dynamic protein expression changes.
  • To explore selective factors shaping codon usage in eukaryotic genomes.
  • To understand the link between codon usage, gene function, and cellular adaptation.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of synonymous codon usage correlations with gene function across multiple species.
  • Comparison of codon usage in coexpressed genes.
  • Experimental perturbation of codon usage and tRNA composition to assess effects on protein expression and cellular phenotypes.

Main Results:

  • Codon usage universally correlates with gene function, indicating synchronized regulation of functionally related genes.
  • Coexpressed genes exhibit similar synonymous codon usages in human, yeast, C. elegans, and E. coli.
  • Perturbing codon usage or tRNA composition directly impacts protein expression levels and cellular responses to stimuli.

Conclusions:

  • Codon usage is selected to synchronize translation efficiency with dynamic protein expression needs.
  • Function-specific codon usage is a universal phenomenon, extending to most organisms.
  • Cells likely dynamically alter intracellular tRNA composition for environmental and physiological adaptation.