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Updated: Jun 19, 2026

In Vitro Method to Study Sex-Based Differences in Conjunctival Goblet Cells
Published on: July 28, 2023
Sex- and gender-based differences in healthy and diseased eyes
Heidi Wagner1, Barbara A Fink, Karla Zadnik
1Nova Southeastern University College of Optometry, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 33328, USA. wagner@nova.edu
Purpose:
The aim of this study was to identify sex- and gender-based differences in ocular anatomy, physiology, and disease susceptibility or manifestation.
Methods:
Review of current indexed literature was conducted.
Results:
Sex and sex hormones influence the lacrimal system, eyelids and blinking, corneal anatomy and disease, aqueous humor dynamics and glaucoma, crystalline lens and cataract, uveitis and retinal disease, ocular circulation, and optic nerve anatomy and disease. Systemic conditions, particularly autoimmune disease, and conditions that are unique to women, such as pregnancy and menopause, further illustrate the effects of sex hormones on the eye. Gender-based differences in ocular conditions and disease should be considered within the context of the underlying physical and social environment.
Conclusions:
Many sex- and gender-based differences exist in healthy and diseased eyes.
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