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Updated: Jun 19, 2026

Three-Dimensional Morphogenesis in Canine Gut-on-a-Chip Using Intestinal Organoids Derived from Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients
Published on: February 9, 2024
Intestine as source of cytokines and growth factors
D Porowski1, M Niemczyk, J Ziółkowski
1Department of Immunology, Transplantology, and Internal Diseases, Transplantation Institute, Warsaw Medical University, ul. Nowogrodzka 59, 02-005 Warsaw, Poland.
Background:
The activation status of intestinal immune system cells is much higher than that of analogous peripheral cells. Increased serum concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines have been reported in various pathologic conditions; however, the source of these mediators has not been elucidated.
Objective:
To assess the role of the human intestine and its lymphatic system in production of growth factors and proinflammatory cytokines.
Material And Methods:
Twenty liver transplant recipients and 20 donors were included in the study. Blood samples were obtained from the artery supplying the intestine, the portal vein, and a peripheral vein during liver harvesting in donors and after transplantation in recipients. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to assess serum concentrations of IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF).
Results:
In transplant recipients, IL-6 concentration in arterial blood was lower than that in portal blood (P < .049), whereas in donors, there was no significant difference in these concentrations. Neither recipients nor donors demonstrated significant differences in arterial or portal blood concentrations of TNF-alpha, TGF-beta, or HGF.
Conclusions:
In healthy human beings, the intestine is not a substantial source of IL-6, TNF-alpha, TGF-beta, or HGF. However, in patients with liver cirrhosis, the intestine is an important source of IL-6 but not of the other studied growth factors and cytokines.
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