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Related Concept Videos

Vaccinations01:51

Vaccinations

Overview
Development of Immunocompetence01:22

Development of Immunocompetence

The initiation of cell-mediated immunity can be observed as early as the third month of fetal growth, with active antibody-mediated immunity following approximately one month later.
The initial cells that migrate from the fetal thymus settle within the skin and epithelial tissues lining the mouth, digestive tract, and in females, the uterus and vagina. These cells, including skin-based dendritic cells, serve as antigen-presenting cells, playing a key role in T cell activation.
Subsequent T...
Diphtheria01:28

Diphtheria

Diphtheria is an acute, toxin-mediated infectious disease that primarily affects the upper respiratory tract. It is caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae, a Gram-positive, pleomorphic rod that lacks spore-forming capability and exhibits a characteristic club-shaped morphology under microscopic examination. While C. diphtheriae can asymptomatically colonize mucosal surfaces, clinical disease manifests only when the bacterial strain is lysogenized by a specific β-corynephage. This phage...
Active versus Passive Immunity01:31

Active versus Passive Immunity

Immunity, along with the ability to limit pathogen growth to prevent significant body tissue damage, can be gained either by (1) actively developing an immune response within the individual after exposure to a pathogen or after getting vaccinated or (2) passively transferring immune components from an immune individual to one who is nonimmune. Both these forms of immunity can be found naturally and in medical practices.
Active Immunity
Active immunity refers to the resistance one develops...
Immunological Memory01:23

Immunological Memory

Immunological memory, a pivotal pillar of the adaptive immune system, is responsible for the body's ability to remember and respond more swiftly and effectively to previously encountered pathogens. This remarkable feature is what makes vaccines so effective in preventing diseases.
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Humoral Immune Responses01:36

Humoral Immune Responses

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 19, 2026

An Optimized Hemagglutination Inhibition (HI) Assay to Quantify Influenza-specific Antibody Titers
06:34

An Optimized Hemagglutination Inhibition (HI) Assay to Quantify Influenza-specific Antibody Titers

Published on: December 1, 2017

OBSERVATIONS ON ANTITYPHOID VACCINATION.

H J Nichols1

  • 1Department of Pathology of the Army Medical School, Washington, and the Laboratory Service of the Letterman General Hospital, San Francisco.

The Journal of Experimental Medicine
|October 30, 2009
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Metchnikoff and Besredka

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Microbiology
  • Vaccinology

Background:

  • Metchnikoff and Besredka's living sensitized vaccine was investigated for its effects on typhoid infections.
  • The study examined the efficacy of this vaccine and the validity of the typhoidin skin test for assessing immunity.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To determine if the living sensitized vaccine can induce typhoid cholecystitis in rabbits.
  • To assess the suitability of rabbits for testing vaccine-induced immunity against gallbladder infections.
  • To evaluate the relationship between vaccine toxicity, local reactions, and the typhoidin skin test in relation to true immunity.

Main Methods:

  • Direct injection of the living sensitized vaccine into the gall bladder of rabbits.
  • Observation of induced typhoid cholecystitis.
  • Attempts to immunize rabbits against direct gallbladder infections.
  • Analysis of local reactions following vaccination and revaccination.
  • Evaluation of the typhoidin skin test as an indicator of immunity.

Main Results:

  • The living sensitized vaccine induced infectious typhoid cholecystitis when injected directly into rabbit gall bladders.
  • Rabbits could not be successfully immunized with this vaccine against direct gallbladder infections, rendering them unsuitable for immunity testing.
  • The Army vaccine strain is pathogenic, relatively avirulent, and toxic, with efficacy potentially linked to its toxicity.
  • Revaccinations sometimes caused more severe local reactions than initial vaccinations in individuals with prior typhoid history.
  • The typhoidin skin test indicated typhoid proteid sensitization rather than true immunity, which is more complete, permanent, and specific.

Conclusions:

  • The living sensitized vaccine is infectious and cannot induce protective immunity in rabbits against direct gallbladder infections.
  • Rabbits are not a suitable model for testing immunity conferred by this vaccine.
  • Vaccine efficacy may be related to toxicity, and revaccinations can elicit stronger local responses.
  • The typhoidin skin test is a measure of sensitization, not a reliable indicator of true typhoid immunity.