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Halogens

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. Astatine is a highly unstable radioactive element, so currently, most of its properties are unknown due to its short half-life. Tennessine is a synthetic element also predicted to be in this group.

Hand hygiene

Hand hygiene

Asepsis is the practice of preventing or breaking the chain of infection. The nurse employs aseptic techniques to prevent the spread of microorganisms and reduce the risk of diseases. Hand hygiene is the cornerstone of aseptic techniques and is classified into medical and surgical asepsis. Medical asepsis includes hand hygiene and the use of gloves. Surgical asepsis, or the sterile technique, refers to practices that render and keep objects and areas free of microorganisms.
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Chemical Agents for Microbial Control

Chemical Agents for Microbial Control

Chemicals play important roles in controlling microbial growth by targeting microbial structures and functions as sanitizers, antiseptics, disinfectants, and sterilants.Alcohols are commonly used sanitizers, effectively disrupting lipid membranes, which compromises cell integrity. They are also used as antiseptics and disinfectants due to their rapid action and versatility.Phenols and their derivatives phenolics , known for denaturing proteins and disrupting cell membranes, are particularly...

Alkyl Halides

Alkyl Halides

Structural Properties
Alkyl halides are halogen-substituted alkanes wherein one or more hydrogen atoms of an alkane is replaced by a halogen atom such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine. The carbon atom in an alkyl halide is bonded to the halogen atom, which is sp3-hybridized and exhibits a tetrahedral shape.
Unlike alkyl halides, compounds in which a halogen atom is bonded to an sp2 -hybridized carbon atom of a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C) are called vinyl halides. Whereas aryl...

Radical Reactivity: Electrophilic Radicals

Radical Reactivity: Electrophilic Radicals

Radicals adjacent to electron‐withdrawing groups are called electrophilic radicals. These radicals readily react with nucleophilic alkenes. For example, the malonate radical, in which the radical center is flanked by two electron‐withdrawing groups, reacts readily with butyl vinyl ether, which consists of an electron‐donating oxygen substituent. The reaction between electrophilic malonate radical and nucleophilic vinyl ether is favored because the radical has a low‐energy SOMO, which interacts...

Relative Reactivity of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

Relative Reactivity of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

Carboxylic acid derivatives such as acid halides, anhydrides, esters, and amides undergo nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions with varying degrees of reactivity.
A key factor in assessing the reactivity of the acid derivatives is the basicity of the substituent or the leaving group. The lower the basicity of the leaving group, the higher the reactivity of the derivative. The basicity of the leaving group follows this order:
Halide ions < Acyloxy ions < Alkoxy ions < Amine ions

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 19, 2026

In vitro Cell Culture Model for Toxic Inhaled Chemical Testing

In vitro Cell Culture Model for Toxic Inhaled Chemical Testing

Published on: May 8, 2014

RELATIVE IRRITANT PROPERTIES OF THE CHLORINE GROUP OF ANTISEPTICS.

G E Cullen¹, H D Taylor

¹Laboratories of The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research.

The Journal of Experimental Medicine

|October 30, 2009

Summary

Rabbit ears effectively test antiseptic irritancy. Controlled alkalinity is crucial for accurate results, with specific pH ranges indicating minimal or intense irritation for sodium hypochlorite solutions.

Area of Science:

Dermatology
Toxicology
Antiseptic Efficacy Testing

Background:

Individual variations in biological systems necessitate standardized control solutions for accurate testing.
Establishing reliable methods for assessing antiseptic irritancy is vital for product safety and efficacy.

Purpose of the Study:

To propose and validate the use of rabbit ears for testing the irritant effects of antiseptics.
To determine optimal alkalinity ranges for control solutions in antiseptic testing.

Main Methods:

Utilizing rabbit ears as the biological model for assessing irritant effects.
Employing 0.5% sodium hypochlorite solutions with controlled alkalinity (pH 9-10) as reference controls.
Adjusting solution alkalinity using phenolphthalein and cresolphthalein indicators.

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Published on: August 23, 2015

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Eye Irritation Test (EIT) for Hazard Identification of Eye Irritating Chemicals using Reconstructed Human Cornea-like Epithelial (RhCE) Tissue Model

Eye Irritation Test (EIT) for Hazard Identification of Eye Irritating Chemicals using Reconstructed Human Cornea-like Epithelial (RhCE) Tissue Model

Published on: August 23, 2015

Main Results:

0.5% sodium hypochlorite solutions exhibit minimal irritation within a pH range of 9-10.
Alkalinity outside the pH 8.5-10.2 range results in intense irritation.
Dakin's solution, chloramine-T (2%), and dichloramine-T (5%) showed minimal to no irritation.

Conclusions:

Rabbit ear testing provides a viable method for evaluating antiseptic irritancy.
Precise control of alkalinity is essential for reproducible and reliable antiseptic testing.
Specific antiseptic formulations like Dakin's solution and chloramine-T demonstrate a favorable safety profile regarding skin irritation.