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Related Concept Videos

Probiotics01:22

Probiotics

Probiotics are live, non-pathogenic microorganisms that confer health benefits by modulating the gut microbiota. The human gastrointestinal tract harbors a complex microbial ecosystem, and the balance of this microbiota is crucial for digestive and systemic health. Among the most extensively studied and utilized probiotics are species formerly classified within the genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. These organisms not only naturally colonize the human gut but are also consumed through...
Development of Human Microbiota01:30

Development of Human Microbiota

The human microbiota begins developing at birth and undergoes continual change as we age. Infancy marks a critical period of microbial sensitivity, offering a “window of opportunity” during which beneficial microbes help mature the immune system. By age three, children typically develop a more stable and diverse microbial community. Newborns acquire microbes from their immediate environment; vaginal delivery favors maternal vaginal microbes, while cesarean births favor microbes from the skin...
Oligosaccharide Assembly01:24

Oligosaccharide Assembly

Protein glycosylation starts in the ER lumen and continues in the Golgi apparatus. Glycosyltransferases catalyze the addition of sugar molecules or glycosylation of proteins. Usually, these enzymes add sugars to the hydroxyl groups of selected serine or threonine residues to form O-linked glycans or the amino groups of asparagine residues to form N-linked glycans. Different positions on the same polypeptide chain can contain differently linked glycans.
Multiple sugar molecules that may or may...
Development of the Oral Microbiota01:28

Development of the Oral Microbiota

The establishment of the oral microbiome begins before birth, challenging the long-held belief that the fetal oral cavity is sterile. The presence of oral microbes such as Streptococcus and Fusobacterium in amniotic fluid suggests that microbial exposure may occur in utero, potentially through translocation from the maternal oral or gastrointestinal tract. This early colonization primes the neonatal immune system and sets the stage for subsequent microbial succession. Maternal health,...
Microbiota Modulation by Antibiotics01:21

Microbiota Modulation by Antibiotics

Antibiotics have revolutionized modern medicine by saving countless lives from bacterial infections. However, their widespread use has inadvertently harmed the delicate balance of the human gut microbiota. The gut microbiota, a complex community of bacteria, archaea, viruses, and fungi, plays a vital role in regulating metabolism, immune responses, and maintaining intestinal health. Antibiotics, especially broad-spectrum types, disrupt this ecosystem by eradicating both harmful and beneficial...
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Introduction to the Human Microbiota

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 18, 2026

Analysis of Fucosylated Human Milk Trisaccharides in Biotechnological Context Using Genetically Encoded Biosensors
10:17

Analysis of Fucosylated Human Milk Trisaccharides in Biotechnological Context Using Genetically Encoded Biosensors

Published on: April 13, 2019

Human milk oligosaccharides: prebiotics and beyond.

Lars Bode1

  • 1Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA. lbode@ucsd.edu

Nutrition Reviews
|November 13, 2009
PubMed
Summary

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are vital complex sugars in breast milk, offering benefits to infants. This review explores HMO biosynthesis, infant benefits, and strategies for incorporating them into infant formula.

Area of Science:

  • Nutritional Biochemistry
  • Glycobiology
  • Human Lactation

Background:

  • Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are abundant, structurally diverse glycans unique to human milk.
  • Their high concentration suggests significant biological importance for infant health.
  • HMOs are absent in conventional infant formulas, creating a nutritional gap.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the current understanding of human milk oligosaccharide biosynthesis.
  • To explore the diverse functions and benefits of HMOs for breast-fed infants.
  • To discuss challenges and potential solutions for providing HMOs in infant nutrition.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of scientific publications on HMO biosynthesis and function.
  • Analysis of existing knowledge gaps in HMO research.

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Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 18, 2026

Analysis of Fucosylated Human Milk Trisaccharides in Biotechnological Context Using Genetically Encoded Biosensors
10:17

Analysis of Fucosylated Human Milk Trisaccharides in Biotechnological Context Using Genetically Encoded Biosensors

Published on: April 13, 2019

Individualized Reconstitution of Human Milk Microbiota: A Feasible Approach in Real-World Settings
04:16

Individualized Reconstitution of Human Milk Microbiota: A Feasible Approach in Real-World Settings

Published on: February 7, 2025

  • Synthesis of information regarding infant formula development.

    • Main Results:

    • HMOs are synthesized via complex enzymatic pathways in the mammary gland.
    • Emerging evidence highlights HMO roles in modulating infant gut microbiota and immunity.
    • Current infant formulas lack the structural diversity and specific functions of native HMOs.

    Conclusions:

    • Understanding HMO biosynthesis is crucial for their production.
    • HMOs play a critical role in infant development and health.
    • Developing HMO-fortified formulas is a key goal for infant nutrition.