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Related Concept Videos

Types of Radioactivity03:23

Types of Radioactivity

The most common types of radioactivity are α decay, β decay, γ decay, neutron emission, and electron capture.
Alpha (α) decay is the emission of an α particle from the nucleus. For example, polonium-210 undergoes α decay:
Radiation: Applications01:17

Radiation: Applications

The average temperature of Earth is the subject of much current discussion. Earth is in radiative contact with both the Sun and dark space; it receives almost all its energy from the radiation of the Sun and reflects some of it into outer space. Dark space is very cold, about 3 K, so Earth radiates energy into it. For instance, heat transfer occurs from soil and grasses, the rate of which can be so rapid that frost can occur on clear summer evenings, even in warm latitudes.
The average...
Nuclear Transmutation03:20

Nuclear Transmutation

Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one nuclide into another. It can occur by the radioactive decay of a nucleus, or the reaction of a nucleus with another particle. The first manmade nucleus was produced in Ernest Rutherford’s laboratory in 1919 by a transmutation reaction, the bombardment of one type of nuclei with other nuclei or with neutrons. Rutherford bombarded nitrogen-14 atoms with high-speed α particles from a natural radioactive isotope of radium and observed protons being...
Biological Effects of Radiation02:59

Biological Effects of Radiation

All radioactive nuclides emit high-energy particles or electromagnetic waves. When this radiation encounters living cells, it can cause heating, break chemical bonds, or ionize molecules. The most serious biological damage results when these radioactive emissions fragment or ionize molecules. For example, α and β particles emitted from nuclear decay reactions possess much higher energies than ordinary chemical bond energies. When these particles strike and penetrate matter, they produce ions...
Positron Emission Tomography01:29

Positron Emission Tomography

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a medical imaging technique involving radiopharmaceuticals — substances that emit short-lived radiation. Although the first PET scanner was introduced in 1961, it took 15 more years before radiopharmaceuticals were combined with the technique and revolutionized its potential.
One of the main requirements of a PET scan is a positron-emitting radioisotope, which is produced in a cyclotron and then attached to a substance used by the part of the body being...
Isotopes and Radioisotopes01:28

Isotopes and Radioisotopes

In the early 1900s, English chemist Frederick Soddy realized that an element could have atoms with different masses that were chemically indistinguishable. These different types are called isotopes — atoms of the same element that differ in mass. Isotopes differ in mass because they have different numbers of neutrons but are chemically identical because they have the same number of protons. Soddy was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1921 for this discovery.
An isotope containing more...

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Updated: Jun 18, 2026

Proton Therapy Delivery and Its Clinical Application in Select Solid Tumor Malignancies
08:34

Proton Therapy Delivery and Its Clinical Application in Select Solid Tumor Malignancies

Published on: February 6, 2019

Charged particles in radiation oncology.

Marco Durante1, Jay S Loeffler

  • 1Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI), Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung, Biophysics Department, Plackstrasse 1, Darmstadt, Germany. m.durante@gsi.de

Nature Reviews. Clinical Oncology
|December 2, 2009
PubMed
Summary

Particle therapy, using charged particles like protons and carbon ions, offers advantages over traditional X-ray radiotherapy for cancer treatment. This review examines current clinical results and ongoing research questions in particle therapy.

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Area of Science:

  • Oncology
  • Medical Physics
  • Radiation Biology

Background:

  • Radiotherapy is a cornerstone of cancer treatment, typically using X-rays.
  • High-energy charged particles offer potential physical and radiobiological advantages over X-rays.
  • Particle therapy is an emerging radiotherapy technique utilizing protons and carbon ions.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review current clinical outcomes of particle therapy.
  • To identify and discuss key research questions in the field of particle therapy.
  • To evaluate the cost:benefit ratio and clinical justification of particle therapy.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing clinical results in particle therapy.
  • Analysis of physical and radiobiological properties of charged particles.
  • Discussion of research questions and future directions.

Main Results:

  • Particle therapy, using protons and carbon ions, is being used for various solid cancers.
  • Several new particle therapy centers with large accelerators are under construction.
  • Ongoing debate exists regarding the cost:benefit ratio and clinical advantage of particle therapy.

Conclusions:

  • Particle therapy presents promising clinical results and advantages.
  • Further research is needed to address cost-effectiveness and optimize treatment strategies.
  • The field is rapidly evolving with new centers and ongoing investigations into its clinical utility.