Social psychologists have documented that feeling good about ourselves and maintaining positive self-esteem is a powerful motivator of human behavior (Tavris & Aronson, 2008). In the United States, members of the predominant culture typically think very highly of themselves and view themselves as good people who are above average on many desirable traits (Ehrlinger, Gilovich, & Ross, 2005). Often, our behavior, attitudes, and beliefs are affected when we experience a threat to our...

The Self-Evaluation Maintenance (SEM) model offers a psychological framework to understand how individuals’ self-esteem is influenced by the achievements of others, particularly those with whom they share close personal bonds. The SEM model operates when personal rather than social identity guides individuals. Central to this model is the notion that individuals have an inherent desire to preserve a favorable self-image, which is continuously shaped by interpersonal comparisons and...

The halo effect is a cognitive bias in which an individual's overall impression influences judgments about their specific traits. This psychological phenomenon leads people to associate positive characteristics with those they perceive as generally good and negative characteristics with those they view as bad. This effect is particularly influential in social perception, professional evaluations, and decision-making processes.The Psychological Basis of the Halo EffectThe halo effect is rooted...

Self-esteem is intricately tied to our perception of competence and our ability to exert control over our lives. One of the primary sources of this perception is performance feedback — the ongoing evaluation of our actions in terms of success and failure. According to Franks and Marolla (1976), people derive self-worth from experiencing themselves as causal agents, capable of achieving goals and overcoming obstacles. This process nurtures a critical component of self-esteem: self-efficacy,...

Self-evaluation is the process by which individuals assess their abilities, behaviors, and characteristics based on feedback from others. Charles H. Cooley observed that a person’s self-perception is primarily influenced by how others see and judge them. He suggested that individuals form their identities based on their interpretations of others' reactions. As a result, social interactions play a crucial role in shaping self-esteem and personal identity. These external evaluations often blend...

Julian Rotter introduced the concept of locus of control, a cognitive factor that significantly influences personality development and learning. Locus of control refers to an individual's beliefs about the extent of control they have over events in their lives. According to Rotter, this belief system can be categorized into two types: internal and external locus of control.
Individuals with an internal locus of control believe that their personal efforts and decisions directly affect their...