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Covalently Linked Protein Regulators

Covalently Linked Protein Regulators

Proteins can undergo many types of post-translational modifications, often in response to changes in their environment. These modifications play an important role in the function and stability of these proteins. Covalently linked molecules include functional groups, such as methyl, acetyl, and phosphate groups, and also small proteins, such as ubiquitin. There are around 200 different types of covalent regulators that have been identified.
These groups modify specific amino acids in a protein.

Catenins

Catenins

Catenins are characterized by multiple binding domains and dynamic structures that allow them to function as linker proteins in cell junction complexes. All catenins, except α-catenin, contain a characteristic protein sequence called the armadillo repeat and are therefore also called armadillo proteins.
Catenins in Cell Junctions
Catenins bind to cell adhesion molecules such as cadherins and link them to different cytoskeletal proteins depending on the type of cell junction. At the adherens...

Protein Modifications in the RER

Protein Modifications in the RER

Modification of secretory and transmembrane proteins entering the rough ER begins in the ER lumen. These modifications aid in protein folding and stabilize the acquired tertiary structure. Protein modifications in the rough ER co-occur at different stages of protein folding.
Broadly, these modifications can be categorized into four main categories — glycosylation, formation of disulfide bonds, assembly of protein subunits, and specific proteolytic cleavages like removal of signal sequences.

Phosphoinositides and PIPs

Phosphoinositides and PIPs

Phosphoinositides are a group of phospholipids containing a glycerol backbone with two fatty acid chains and a phosphate attached to a myoinositol sugar ring. The inositol head group extends into the cytoplasm, where it is modified by adding phosphate groups to form phosphatidylinositol phosphates or PIPs.
Different phosphoinositides are synthesized and recruited on the cytosolic face of the plasma membrane. The localization of specific phosphoinositides concentrated in separate membrane...

Intracellular Signaling Affects Focal Adhesions

Intracellular Signaling Affects Focal Adhesions

Integrins act both as extracellular input receivers and as intracellular processing activators. As their name suggests, integrins are entirely integrated into the membrane structure. Their hydrophobic membrane-spanning regions interact with the phospholipid bilayer's hydrophobic region. These membrane receptors provide extracellular attachment sites for effectors like hormones and growth factors. They activate intracellular response cascades when their effectors are bound and active.
Some...

Phosphorylation

Phosphorylation

The addition or removal of phosphate groups from proteins is the most common chemical modification that regulates cellular processes. These modifications can affect the structure, activity, stability, and localization of proteins within cells as well as their interactions with other proteins.
During phosphorylation, protein kinases transfer the terminal phosphate group of ATP to specific amino acid side chains of substrate proteins. Serine, threonine, and tyrosine are the most commonly...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 17, 2026

Differentiation and Imaging of Brown Adipocytes from the Stromal Vascular Fraction of Interscapular Adipose Tissue from Newborn Mice

Differentiation and Imaging of Brown Adipocytes from the Stromal Vascular Fraction of Interscapular Adipose Tissue from Newborn Mice

Published on: February 3, 2023

Adiponectin--it's all about the modifications.

Fiona Simpson¹, Jonathan P Whitehead

¹Diamantina Institute for Cancer, Immunology and Metabolic Medicine, University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia.

The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology

|January 2, 2010

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Adiponectin, an adipokine hormone, requires extensive post-translational modifications (PTMs) for its active forms. Understanding these PTMs offers therapeutic strategies for obesity-related diseases.

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Last Updated: Jun 17, 2026

Differentiation and Imaging of Brown Adipocytes from the Stromal Vascular Fraction of Interscapular Adipose Tissue from Newborn Mice

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Published on: February 3, 2023

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An Adipocyte Cell Culture Model to Study the Impact of Protein and Micro-RNA Modulation on Adipocyte Function

An Adipocyte Cell Culture Model to Study the Impact of Protein and Micro-RNA Modulation on Adipocyte Function

Published on: May 4, 2021

Area of Science:

Biochemistry
Endocrinology
Molecular Biology

Background:

Adiponectin is an adipokine hormone with beneficial effects, circulating as low molecular weight (LMW) and high molecular weight (HMW) multimers.
HMW adiponectin is more metabolically active, and its reduced levels are linked to obesity-related diseases like type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
Efficient adiponectin multimerization and secretion depend on extensive post-translational modifications (PTMs).

Purpose of the Study:

To explore novel post-translational modifications (PTMs) influencing adiponectin production, multimerization, and clearance.
To investigate the mechanisms of thiol-mediated retention and O-glycosylation/sialylation in adiponectin processing.
To identify potential therapeutic targets by understanding the regulation of adiponectin PTMs.

Main Methods:

Review of recent studies identifying novel PTMs of adiponectin.
Analysis of thiol-mediated retention involving ER chaperones (ERp44, DsbA-L).
Investigation of adiponectin succination and O-glycosylation/sialylation impacts on clearance.

Main Results:

Novel PTMs affecting adiponectin efficacy in production and clearance have been identified.
Thiol-mediated retention via ER chaperones facilitates adiponectin multimerization and secretion, competing with succination.
O-glycosylation/sialylation influences adiponectin's circulation clearance rate.

Conclusions:

Modulating adiponectin PTMs presents a promising therapeutic avenue for metabolic and cardiovascular diseases.
Understanding the complex PTMs of adiponectin is crucial for developing effective treatments.
Targeting adiponectin processing pathways could restore beneficial adiponectin levels and combat associated pathologies.