Human studies on genetics of the age at natural menopause: a systematic review

BACKGROUND Timing of natural menopause has great implications for fertility and women's health. Age at natural menopause (ANM) is largely influenced by genetic factors. In the past decade, several genetic studies have been conducted to identify genes in ANM, which can help us unravel the biological pathways underlying this trait and the associated infertility and health risks. After providing an overview of the results of the genetic studies performed so far, we give recommendations for future studies in identifying genetic factors involved in determining the variation in timing of natural menopause. METHODS The electronic databases of Pubmed and Embase were systematically searched until September 2009 for genetic studies on ANM, using relevant keywords on the subject. Additional papers identified through hand search were also included. RESULTS Twenty-eight papers emerged from our literature search. A number of genetic regions and variants involved in several possible pathways underlying timing of ANM were identified, including two possible interesting regions (9q21.3 and chromosome 8 at 26 cM) in linkage analyses. Recent genome-wide association studies have identified two genomic regions (19q13.42 and 20p12.3), containing two promising candidate genes (BRKS1 and MCM). In the candidate gene association studies on ANM, very few consistent associations were found. CONCLUSION A number of genetic variants have been discovered in association with ANM, although the overall results have been rather disappointing. We have described possible new strategies for future genetic studies to identify more genetic loci involved in the variation in menopausal age.