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Related Concept Videos

Spontaneous and Induced Mutations01:30

Spontaneous and Induced Mutations

Spontaneous mutations arise infrequently during DNA replication due to errors in the process. A key factor behind these errors is tautomeric shifts in nitrogenous bases, where bases transition from keto to enol forms or amino to imino forms. This shift can alter base-pairing rules, leading to mutations. Additionally, reactive oxygen species (ROS) arising from aerobic metabolism can damage DNA, resulting in depurination (loss of a purine base) or depyrimidination (loss of a pyrimidine base).
Diversity of Antigen Receptors01:28

Diversity of Antigen Receptors

Antigen receptors are essential components of the immune system crucial in defending the body against foreign invaders. These receptors are present on the surface of B and T cells, enabling them to recognize antigens and mount an appropriate immune response.
Before encountering any antigen, lymphocytes express these receptors. On B cells, the antigen receptor is a membrane-bound antibody molecule called BCR; on T cells, it is a T cell receptor or TCR. B and T cell receptors are composed of two...
T Cell Activation and Clonal Selection01:22

T Cell Activation and Clonal Selection

T cells are integral to our adaptive immune system, recognizing and effectively responding to foreign antigens. T cell activation and clonal selection are pivotal in orchestrating this immune response. This article elucidates these mechanisms, detailing the roles of cluster of differentiation (CD) markers, major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, costimulatory signals, and the process of clonal selection.
Naive T cells that have not yet encountered an antigen express two primary CD...
Conservative Site-specific Recombination and Phase Variation02:53

Conservative Site-specific Recombination and Phase Variation

Because the DNA segments are cut and reorganized in a direction-specific manner, site-specific recombination has emerged as an efficient genetic engineering technique. Flippase and Cyclization recombinases or Flp and Cre, respectively, are two members of the tyrosine recombinase family derived from bacteriophages, that are used to mediate site-specific DNA insertions, deletions, and targeted expression of proteins in mammalian cell lines.
The recognition sites for Cre recombinase called LoxP...
Hybridoma Technology01:31

Hybridoma Technology

Hybridoma technology is used for the large-scale production of monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies bind to only a single antigenic determinant or epitope. Such antibodies are used in research, diagnostics, and disease therapy. The hybridoma technology established in 1975 by Georges Köhler and Cesar Milstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1984 for revolutionizing research and therapy.
Hybridoma Selection
Commonly used fusion techniques — electroporation, polyethylene glycol...
Transcytosis of IgG01:15

Transcytosis of IgG

Transcytosis is the process in which molecules are internalized by endocytosis, transported across the cell, and released through exocytosis from the opposite end of the cell. Molecules such as insulin, immunoglobulins, and certain nutrients are transferred through the recycling endosomes by recycling and transcytosis.
IgG molecules from a mother undergo transcytosis starting around 13 weeks of gestation. The amount of IgG transferred and entering the fetal blood circulation increases with...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 17, 2026

Analysis of Somatic Hypermutation in the JH4 intron of Germinal Center B cells from Mouse Peyer's Patches
09:35

Analysis of Somatic Hypermutation in the JH4 intron of Germinal Center B cells from Mouse Peyer's Patches

Published on: April 20, 2021

Controlling somatic hypermutation in immunoglobulin variable and switch regions.

Robert W Maul1, Patricia J Gearhart

  • 1Laboratory of Molecular Gerontology, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.

Immunologic Research
|January 19, 2010
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Activation-induced deaminase (AID) initiates antibody diversification by deaminating DNA, leading to mutations. Specific DNA sequences in switch regions promote AID access, favoring mutagenic repair over faithful DNA repair.

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Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 17, 2026

Analysis of Somatic Hypermutation in the JH4 intron of Germinal Center B cells from Mouse Peyer's Patches
09:35

Analysis of Somatic Hypermutation in the JH4 intron of Germinal Center B cells from Mouse Peyer's Patches

Published on: April 20, 2021

Assessing Somatic Hypermutation in Ramos B Cells after Overexpression or Knockdown of Specific Genes
08:12

Assessing Somatic Hypermutation in Ramos B Cells after Overexpression or Knockdown of Specific Genes

Published on: November 1, 2011

Induction and Assessment of Class Switch Recombination in Purified Murine B Cells
09:49

Induction and Assessment of Class Switch Recombination in Purified Murine B Cells

Published on: August 13, 2010

Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Molecular Biology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Activation-induced deaminase (AID) is crucial for antibody diversification.
  • AID deaminates cytosine to uracil in DNA, initiating mutations and breaks in immunoglobulin genes.
  • Faithful and mutagenic DNA repair pathways intricately interact during somatic hypermutation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To elucidate the role of genomic sequence in directing DNA repair pathways during antibody diversification.
  • To understand how switch region sequences influence the balance between faithful and mutagenic repair.
  • To investigate the mechanism by which DNA sequence maximizes AID access and uracil abundance.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of DNA repair pathways.
  • Investigation of immunoglobulin gene loci.
  • Examination of the genomic sequence of switch regions.

Main Results:

  • Genomic sequences within switch regions significantly influence the balance of DNA repair.
  • The sequence of the switch mu region is optimized for AID access, increasing clustered uracil (dU) bases.
  • High frequency and proximity of dU bases inhibit faithful repair and promote DNA strand breaks.

Conclusions:

  • Genomic sequence is a key determinant in shifting DNA repair from faithful to mutagenic during antibody diversification.
  • The switch mu region sequence actively promotes mutagenic repair by facilitating AID activity and dU accumulation.
  • Understanding this interplay is vital for comprehending antibody gene diversification and potential errors.