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States of Water

States of Water

Water exists in any one of the three classical states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (steam or water vapor). The state of water depends on i) the intermolecular forces that draw molecules together and ii) the kinetic energy that leads to movements that pull them apart.
Water freezes when the intermolecular forces are greater than the kinetic energy. Unlike most other substances, water is less dense in its solid state than in its liquid state. This is because each water molecule can form...

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Updated: Jun 16, 2026

Spatial Separation of Molecular Conformers and Clusters

Spatial Separation of Molecular Conformers and Clusters

Published on: January 9, 2014

Water and ice cloud discrimination by laser beam scattering.

|January 23, 2010

Summary

This study shows how to differentiate ice and water clouds using polarized light scattering. Measurements at specific wavelengths reveal distinct scattering patterns for each cloud type.

Area of Science:

Atmospheric optics
Cloud physics

Background:

Distinguishing between ice and liquid water clouds is crucial for climate modeling and weather forecasting.
Different refractive indices of ice and water affect light scattering properties.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the potential of using polarized light scattering at specific wavelengths to differentiate between ice and water clouds.
To analyze the angular distribution of polarization parameters for different cloud types.

Main Methods:

Mie single scattering theory calculations were performed using a Deirmendjian cloud model C1.
Simulations covered wavelengths from 2.90 to 20 micrometers for incident plane-polarized radiation.
Angular distributions of scattered radiation, polarization ratio, and ellipticity were analyzed.

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Main Results:

Significant differences in the angular distribution of polarization parameters were observed between ice and water clouds.
Wavelengths exhibiting marked differences in refractive indices between ice and water were identified as key.
Specific polarization parameters, including polarization ratio and ellipticity, showed distinct patterns.

Conclusions:

The measurement of angular distribution of polarization parameters at selected wavelengths can effectively distinguish between ice and liquid water clouds.
This method offers a remote sensing approach for characterizing cloud phase.
Further validation with observational data is recommended.