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IR Spectrometers01:25

IR Spectrometers

There are two main infrared (IR) spectrophotometers: dispersive IR spectrometers and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers. In a dispersive IR spectrometer, a beam of infrared radiation produced by a hot wire is divided into two parallel equal-intensity beams using mirrors. One beam passes through the sample, while another is a reference beam. The beams then move through the monochromator, which separates the radiations into a continuous spectrum of different frequencies. The...
Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy: Overview01:09

Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy: Overview

When electromagnetic radiation passes through a material, atoms or molecules transition from a lower to a higher energy state by absorbing radiation corresponding to the energy difference between the two states. The absorption of infrared (IR) radiation causes transitions between vibrational energy levels in a molecule. Therefore, IR spectroscopy is a useful analytical tool for determining the molecular structure of molecules.
Different compounds display unique properties due to their...
Atomic Emission Spectroscopy: Instrumentation01:22

Atomic Emission Spectroscopy: Instrumentation

The instrumentation of atomic emission spectrometry (AES) involves various components, including atomization devices that convert samples into gas-phase atoms and ions. There are two main types of atomization devices: continuous and discrete atomizers.  Continuous atomizers, like plasmas and flames, introduce samples in a constant stream, while discrete atomizers inject individual samples using syringes or autosamplers. The most common discrete atomizer is the electrothermal atomizer.
Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy01:05

Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy

Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy or TIRF is an advanced microscopic technique used to visualize fluorophores in samples close to a solid surface with a higher refractive index, such as a glass coverslip. TIRF only allows fluorophores in proximity to the solid surface to be excited. When light from a medium with a lower refractive index (such as air) hits the glass coverslip at a critical angle, the light undergoes total internal reflection stead of passing through the glass.
Focusing of Light in the Eye01:16

Focusing of Light in the Eye

Light rays enter the eye through the cornea, a transparent dome-shaped tissue that is the eye's outermost layer. The cornea bends or refracts, light rays traveling to the pupil. The shape of the cornea determines how much of the light is bent and whether the image will be focused correctly on the retina at the back of the eye. Once the light has passed through both refraction layers, it converges into a single focal point onto a small area. This is where photoreceptors start transforming...
Phase Contrast and Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy01:26

Phase Contrast and Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy

Phase-Contrast Microscopes
In-phase-contrast microscopes, interference between light directly passing through a cell and light refracted by cellular components is used to create high-contrast, high-resolution images without staining. It is the oldest and simplest type of microscope that creates an image by altering the wavelengths of light rays passing through the specimen. Altered wavelength paths are created using an annular stop in the condenser. The annular stop produces a hollow cone of...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 16, 2026

Assembly, Tuning and Use of an Apertureless Near Field Infrared Microscope for Protein Imaging
12:27

Assembly, Tuning and Use of an Apertureless Near Field Infrared Microscope for Protein Imaging

Published on: November 25, 2009

View into the integrating sphere through the observation window.

F Rotter

    Applied Optics
    |January 30, 2010
    PubMed
    Summary
    This summary is machine-generated.

    This study simplifies integrating sphere models by reducing zones, optimizing screen placement and size for consistent light distribution. The findings enhance understanding of optical measurements and instrument design.

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    13:31

    High Speed Sub-GHz Spectrometer for Brillouin Scattering Analysis

    Published on: December 22, 2015

    Area of Science:

    • Optical Engineering
    • Photometry

    Background:

    • Integrating spheres are crucial for optical measurements.
    • Accurate modeling of light reflection is complex.
    • Existing models may lack simplified analytical solutions.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To develop a simplified model for integrating sphere reflections.
    • To optimize the design parameters of the internal screen.
    • To establish a method for determining optimal screen size and placement.

    Main Methods:

    • A detailed 26-zone model of an integrating sphere was analyzed.
    • The model was simplified to a 3-zone system with partial luminous fluxes.
    • The 'net hold' concept was introduced and analyzed.
    • Optimization of screen placement and size was performed under constant net hold conditions.

    Main Results:

    • A simplified 3-zone model effectively represents integrating sphere optics.
    • The optimal screen size and placement are primarily determined by the ratio of net hold diameter to observation window diameter.
    • Further factors have minimal impact on screen optimization.

    Conclusions:

    • A simplified model provides an effective approach to understanding integrating sphere reflections.
    • Screen geometry is critical for optimizing light distribution and measurement accuracy.
    • The findings facilitate the design and calibration of optical instruments using integrating spheres.