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Phosphoinositides and PIPs

Phosphoinositides and PIPs

Phosphoinositides are a group of phospholipids containing a glycerol backbone with two fatty acid chains and a phosphate attached to a myoinositol sugar ring. The inositol head group extends into the cytoplasm, where it is modified by adding phosphate groups to form phosphatidylinositol phosphates or PIPs.
Different phosphoinositides are synthesized and recruited on the cytosolic face of the plasma membrane. The localization of specific phosphoinositides concentrated in separate membrane...

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Updated: Jun 16, 2026

Ex Vivo Release of Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide from the Trigeminovascular System in Rodents

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Cocoa-enriched diets enhance expression of phosphatases and decrease expression of inflammatory molecules in

Ryan J Cady¹, Paul L Durham

¹Center for Biomedical and Life Sciences, Missouri State University, Springfield, MO 65806, USA.

|February 9, 2010

Summary

Dietary cocoa supplementation upregulates mitogen-activated protein (MAP) phosphatases and suppresses inflammatory markers in trigeminal nerves. This suggests cocoa may offer benefits for migraine and temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders.

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Published on: April 1, 2022

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Pharmacology
Nutritional Science

Background:

Migraine and temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders involve trigeminal nerve activation and inflammatory neuropeptide release.
Neuronal inflammatory responses are regulated by a balance between kinases and phosphatases.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the impact of a cocoa-enriched diet on inflammatory protein expression in trigeminal ganglion neurons.
To assess cocoa's effects under basal and inflammatory conditions.

Main Methods:

Rats were fed either a control or cocoa-enriched diet for 14 days.
Trigeminal neurons were subjected to acute or chronic inflammatory stimuli.
Expression of key proteins including MAP phosphatases (MKP-1, MKP-3), MAP kinases (p38, ERK), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) was analyzed.

Main Results:

Cocoa-enriched diet increased basal levels of MKP-1 and MKP-3 in trigeminal neurons.
Dietary cocoa significantly repressed inflammatory-induced expression of p38 and ERK.
Cocoa suppressed basal CGRP and stimulated iNOS levels.

Conclusions:

Dietary cocoa upregulates protective phosphatases (MKP) in trigeminal neurons.
Cocoa consumption mitigates inflammatory responses implicated in migraine and TMJ disorders.
Cocoa contains bioactive compounds potentially beneficial for treating migraine and TMJ disorders.