Peptic ulcers are sores on the stomach's inner lining and the upper small intestine, which are the result of disruptions in the mucosal layer that houses parietal cells which produce gastric acid, and chief cells which secrete pepsinogen.
In the antrum region, G cells secrete the gastrin hormone that binds to gastrin-cholecystokinin-B (CCK2) receptors on parietal and enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells in the fundic glands. Simultaneously, the vagus nerve releases acetylcholine, which binds to M3...

Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) is characterized by mucosal excavation in the esophagus, stomach, pylorus, or duodenum. It can manifest as acute or chronic based on the extent and duration of mucosal involvement.
An acute ulcer, marked by superficial erosion and minimal inflammation, swiftly resolves upon identifying and addressing the underlying cause. In contrast, a chronic ulcer persists, potentially eroding through the muscular wall and forming fibrous tissue.
Peptic ulcers can also be...

Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) involves breaks in the gastrointestinal tract's mucosal lining, primarily in the stomach and duodenum, with less frequent occurrences in the lower esophagus or near the pylorus.Ulcers can be acute or chronic. Acute ulcers are short-lived with minimal inflammation and heal quickly after the irritant is removed. Chronic ulcers persist, may recur, and often cause scarring due to ongoing tissue damage. Superficial erosions affect only the mucosal layer and are called...

Duodenal UlcersDuodenal ulcers are the most common form of peptic ulcer disease, presenting with chronic, intermittent epigastric pain. Pain typically appears 2–3 hours after meals, especially when the stomach is empty, often waking patients at night. It is characteristically relieved by food or antacids (“pain–food–relief”). Some patients remain asymptomatic until complications like bleeding or perforation emerge, particularly with NSAID or anticoagulant use.Gastric UlcersGastric ulcers share...

Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) is characterized by the development of ulcers in the stomach or duodenal mucosa. Its pathophysiology is complex, involving a balance between damaging and protective elements.
Damaging agents such as Helicobacter pylori, gastric acid, pepsin, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can weaken the mucosal defense, allowing hydrogen ions to infiltrate back and harm epithelial cells.

Peptic ulcer disease develops when protective mechanisms of the gastrointestinal mucosa are overwhelmed by harmful factors, leading to localized erosions in the stomach or proximal duodenum. The main causes are Helicobacter pylori infection and chronic use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).Helicobacter pylori–Induced InjuryBacterial Adaptation and Colonization:H. pylori is a spiral, Gram-negative bacterium adapted to the acidic stomach. and transmitted through oral-oral or...