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Related Concept Videos

Muscles that Move the Forearm01:16

Muscles that Move the Forearm

The muscles that move the forearms can be divided into four groups: forearm flexors, forearm extensors, forearm pronators, and forearm supinators. The flexors and extensors act on the elbow joint, while the pronators and supinators act on the radioulnar joints.
Forearm Flexors
The biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis are forearm flexors. The biceps brachii is made up of two heads. Its long head originates at the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, whereas that of the short head is...
Muscles of the Leg that Move the Foot and Toes01:28

Muscles of the Leg that Move the Foot and Toes

The human leg comprises an intricate system of muscles that facilitate the movement of feet and toes. Within this system, the muscles are categorized into the anterior, lateral, and posterior compartments, each with a unique set of muscles carrying out specific functions.
Anterior Compartment
The anterior compartment includes muscles that contribute to the dorsiflexion of the foot. This compartment houses the tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis longus, and extensor digitorum longus muscles.
Axial and Appendicular Muscles01:18

Axial and Appendicular Muscles

Skeletal muscles, the key players in our body's movement, can be classified into two groups based on their location and function: axial muscles and appendicular muscles. These classifications reflect the primary roles the muscles play in the body's structure and movement.
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Axial muscles, situated along the body's midline, are intricately connected to the axial skeleton, which includes the skull, spine, ribs, and sternum. These muscles facilitate facial expressions and play a...
Motor Unit Stimulation01:20

Motor Unit Stimulation

When the neuron of a motor unit fires an action potential, it triggers a series of events, leading to a twitch contraction in the muscle fibers. The process of excitation-contraction coupling is crucial in relaying the action potential to the muscle fibers.
The latent period of contraction marks the onset of excitation-contraction coupling, when the action potential propagates across the sarcolemma, preparing the muscle fibers for contraction. As the fibers enter the contraction phase, the...
Muscles of the Forearm that Move the Hand and Fingers01:16

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The muscles of the forearm that move the wrist, hand, and digits are numerous and diverse. They can be classified into two groups based on their location and function — the anterior and posterior compartment muscles.
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The anterior compartment muscles originate from the humerus. They primarily function as flexors and are also known as flexor muscles. They typically insert on the carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges. The superficial layer includes the flexor carpi radialis,...
Muscles that Move the Leg01:23

Muscles that Move the Leg

The movement of the legs is facilitated by numerous muscles located within the anterior, medial, and posterior compartments of the thigh.
Anterior Compartment
The quadriceps femoris, the most visible muscle of the anterior compartment, is integral for leg extension and thigh flexion. It is formed by merging four distinct muscles — the vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, and rectus femoris. The quadriceps tendon, a shared tendon of the four quadriceps muscles, is affixed to...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 14, 2026

In Vivo Measurement of Hindlimb Dorsiflexor Isometric Torque from Pig
09:41

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Published on: September 3, 2021

Eversion and inversion muscle group peak torque in hyperpronated and normal individuals.

K Karatsolis1, C S Nikolopoulos, E S Papadopoulos

  • 1Laboratory of Sports Physiotherapy, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, University of Athens, Greece.

Foot (Edinburgh, Scotland)
|March 24, 2010
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This study found no significant differences in ankle muscle strength between hyperpronated and normal individuals. Navicular drop measurements may need re-evaluation for accurate pronation assessment.

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Area of Science:

  • Biomechanics
  • Sports Medicine
  • Podiatry

Background:

  • Excessive subtalar pronation alters lower leg biomechanics, affecting foot stability and neuromuscular control.
  • The impact of hyperpronation on muscle strength, specifically evertors and invertors, remains unclear.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To compare isokinetic evertor and invertor peak torque between hyperpronated and normal individuals.
  • To investigate differences in muscle strength between dominant and non-dominant feet in these groups.

Main Methods:

  • 20 healthy males were classified as hyperpronated (navicular drop >= 10 mm) or normal (5-9 mm).
  • Isokinetic concentric eversion and inversion strength were measured at 30°/s and 120°/s using a dynamometer.

Main Results:

  • Inversion peak torque consistently exceeded eversion peak torque and decreased with higher angular velocity.
  • No significant differences in concentric inversion or eversion strength were observed between hyperpronated and normal groups, or between dominant and non-dominant feet.

Conclusions:

  • Current navicular drop cutoffs may require re-evaluation for accurately identifying subtalar pronation.
  • Future research should consider assessing eccentric contractions for a comprehensive strength evaluation of invertors and evertors.