Minireview: rapid actions of sex steroids in the endothelium

The endothelium is a dynamic interface between the blood vessel and the circulating blood that plays a pivotal role in vascular homeostasis. As such, studies on sex steroid regulation of endothelial function are critical to understanding the role of sex steroids in cardiovascular health and disease. The classical model of steroid action involves liganded steroid receptors binding to specific response elements on target genes to regulate gene transcription. In whole organisms, the time lag between steroid administration and observable effects produced by newly synthesized protein is typically in the order of hours to days. And yet, some effects of steroids, such as vasodilatation, occur within seconds to minutes of steroid administration. Studies in multiple cell types have also shown that steroids can cause the rapid initiation of multiple signaling cascades and second messenger systems, prompting investigations into alternate, transcription independent mechanisms of steroid action. Studies of the endothelium over the past two decades have revealed fundamental mechanisms in rapid sex steroid signaling. In particular, endothelium-dependent vasodilatation by estradiol-induced activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase has proven to be an uniquely informative model to study sex steroid signaling via classical sex steroid receptors localized to the cell membrane. Despite the complexity of feedback and cross talk between rapid sex steroid signaling and other modes of steroid action, recent studies in this field are facilitating the development of steroidal drugs that selectively target the ability of sex steroids to initiate signaling cascades.