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Diabetic Retinopathy

Diabetic Retinopathy

DefinitionDiabetic retinopathy is a microvascular complication of diabetes affecting the retinal blood vessels.Risk FactorsDiabetic retinopathy is present in almost all individuals with type 1 diabetes and more than 60% of those with type 2 diabetes after two decades of disease.The risk increases with poor glycemic control, hypertension, dyslipidemia, smoking, pregnancy, and puberty.Although cataracts and glaucoma are also more frequent in people with diabetes, retinopathy remains the leading...

Diabetic Nephropathy

Diabetic Nephropathy

Definition Diabetic nephropathy is a chronic kidney complication that results from prolonged hyperglycemia.Prevalence It is the most common cause of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) worldwide, affecting up to half of individuals with diabetes.Pathophysiology • Sustained hyperglycemia triggers multiple hemodynamic and metabolic changes in the kidney. • Early in the disease, increased renal blood flow and glomerular hyperfiltration occur due to afferent arteriolar...

Type I Diabetes II: Pathophysiology

Type I Diabetes II: Pathophysiology

Type 1 diabetes mellitus arises from an immune-mediated destruction of pancreatic β-cells, resulting in an absolute deficiency of insulin. This process develops in genetically susceptible individuals when autoimmunity, environmental exposures, and immunologic dysregulation converge to trigger a targeted attack on the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas. The β-cells are located within the islets of Langerhans and are essential for regulating blood glucose by facilitating cellular uptake of...

Type II Diabetes II: Pathophysiology

Type II Diabetes II: Pathophysiology

PathophysiologyType 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM ) is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and progressive pancreatic β-cell dysfunction, leading to impaired glucose homeostasis. It results from interactions among genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and metabolic stressors, such as overnutrition and a sedentary lifestyle.Insulin Resistance and Glucose DysregulationEarly T2DM involves insulin resistance in skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and the liver.

Pathophysiology of Diabetes

Pathophysiology of Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia. The four categories of diabetes are type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, other specific types of diabetes, and gestational diabetes.
Type 1 diabetes is characterized by autoimmune-mediated destruction of pancreatic β cells, with environmental factors potentially triggering this process in genetically susceptible individuals. Despite many not having a family history, certain genes increase susceptibility, suggesting a...

Diabetic Neuropathy

Diabetic Neuropathy

DefinitionDiabetic neuropathy is nerve damage caused by long-standing diabetes mellitus. It results directly from prolonged high blood sugar levels.PathophysiologyThe pathophysiology of diabetic neuropathy involves both metabolic and vascular disturbances triggered by chronic hyperglycemia.Metabolic injury: Elevated glucose levels activate the polyol pathway within nerve cells, leading to the accumulation of sorbitol and fructose. This increases oxidative stress, disrupts normal nerve...

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Updated: Jun 13, 2026

Ultrasound Assessment of Endothelial Function: A Technical Guideline of the Flow-mediated Dilation Test

Ultrasound Assessment of Endothelial Function: A Technical Guideline of the Flow-mediated Dilation Test

Published on: April 27, 2016

[Endothelial dysfunction in diabetes].

Yoshihiko Nishio¹

¹Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Shiga University of Medical Science.

Nihon Rinsho. Japanese Journal of Clinical Medicine

|May 8, 2010

Summary

Insulin resistance and hyperglycemia impair endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity, contributing to endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis. This review explores the mechanisms linking these conditions to impaired vascular health.

Area of Science:

Cardiovascular Science
Metabolic Disease Research
Vascular Biology

Context:

Endothelial dysfunction is a key early event in atherosclerosis development.
Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity is crucial for maintaining endothelial function.
Insulin resistance, common in obesity and diabetes, is linked to endothelial dysfunction.

Purpose:

To elucidate the mechanisms by which hyperglycemia and insulin resistance induce endothelial dysfunction.
To highlight the role of insulin signaling and hyperglycemia-induced pathways in eNOS regulation.

Summary:

Insulin regulates eNOS activity via AKT phosphorylation; insulin resistance disrupts this pathway.
Hyperglycemia can activate protein kinase C (PKC), increase oxidative stress, and elevate hexosamine metabolism, all impairing eNOS activity.

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 13, 2026

Ultrasound Assessment of Endothelial Function: A Technical Guideline of the Flow-mediated Dilation Test

Ultrasound Assessment of Endothelial Function: A Technical Guideline of the Flow-mediated Dilation Test

Published on: April 27, 2016

These combined effects of insulin resistance and hyperglycemia contribute significantly to endothelial dysfunction in diabetes.

Impact:

Provides a focused review on the molecular mechanisms underlying diabetes-associated endothelial dysfunction.
Identifies potential therapeutic targets for preventing or treating atherosclerosis in diabetic patients.
Enhances understanding of the interplay between metabolic abnormalities and vascular health.