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Probiotics

Probiotics

Probiotics are live, non-pathogenic microorganisms that confer health benefits by modulating the gut microbiota. The human gastrointestinal tract harbors a complex microbial ecosystem, and the balance of this microbiota is crucial for digestive and systemic health. Among the most extensively studied and utilized probiotics are species formerly classified within the genera Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. These organisms not only naturally colonize the human gut but are also consumed through...

Microbiota Modulation by Antibiotics

Microbiota Modulation by Antibiotics

Antibiotics have revolutionized modern medicine by saving countless lives from bacterial infections. However, their widespread use has inadvertently harmed the delicate balance of the human gut microbiota. The gut microbiota, a complex community of bacteria, archaea, viruses, and fungi, plays a vital role in regulating metabolism, immune responses, and maintaining intestinal health. Antibiotics, especially broad-spectrum types, disrupt this ecosystem by eradicating both harmful and beneficial...

Functions of the Gut Microbiota

Functions of the Gut Microbiota

The gut microbiota includes trillions of microorganisms that colonize the human gastrointestinal tract, including bacteria, archaea, viruses, and fungi. This complex ecosystem plays a critical role in maintaining intestinal and systemic health. Most of these microbes inhabit the large intestine, establishing a relatively stable and diverse community that contributes to gut homeostasis through various metabolic, immunological, and protective mechanisms.Dominant bacterial phyla, such as...

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The human gut microbiome includes a diverse array of microbial species, including beneficial commensals and opportunistic pathogens, which interact to support host health. These microbes contribute to essential functions such as nutrient metabolism, immune system modulation, and maintenance of intestinal barrier integrity. However, disruptions to this equilibrium—referred to as dysbiosis—can have widespread physiological consequences.Dysbiosis is often characterized by reduced microbial...

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Microorganisms colonize various regions of the human body, including the mouth, nasal passages, throat, stomach, intestines, urogenital tract, and skin. The total number of microbial cells is estimated to range from 10¹³ to 10¹⁴—comparable to, or exceeding, the number of human somatic cells. This host–microbiome relationship has led to the conceptualization of humans as supraorganisms, wherein microbial communities perform vital roles in development, immunity, and disease...

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Microorganisms play a fundamental role in vaccine development, gene therapy, and therapeutic production. Their biological properties are harnessed to advance medicine and public health. Beyond immunization, microorganisms contribute to gut health, antibiotic synthesis, and genetic disease treatment.Live Attenuated and Inactivated VaccinesLive attenuated vaccines, such as the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine, utilize weakened forms of pathogens to closely resemble natural infections.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 13, 2026

Induction of Intestinal Inflammation by Adoptive Transfer of CBir1 TCR Transgenic CD4+ T Cells to Immunodeficient Mice

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Immunomodulation by commensal and probiotic bacteria.

Paul Forsythe¹, John Bienenstock

¹The Brain Body Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

Immunological Investigations

|May 11, 2010

Summary

Commensal and probiotic bacteria modulate immune responses, offering therapeutic potential for immune disorders. Understanding these bacteria-host interactions is key to developing effective, bacteria-based health strategies.

Area of Science:

Immunology
Microbiology
Gastroenterology

Background:

Growing awareness of commensal bacteria's role in mucosal immunity.
Significant interest in probiotics and bacteria-based therapies for immune disorders.

Purpose of the Study:

Review mechanisms of immunomodulatory actions by commensal and probiotic bacteria.
Highlight key cellular players and emerging gut-brain-immune axis interactions.

Main Methods:

Literature review of current understanding.
Discussion of cell types: epithelial cells, dendritic cells, T regulatory cells.
Examination of bacteria-host interactions influencing immune responses.

Main Results:

Commensal and probiotic bacteria significantly impact mucosal immune responses.

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An Intestinal Gut Organ Culture System for Analyzing Host-Microbiota Interactions

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Induction of Intestinal Inflammation by Adoptive Transfer of CBir1 TCR Transgenic CD4+ T Cells to Immunodeficient Mice

Induction of Intestinal Inflammation by Adoptive Transfer of CBir1 TCR Transgenic CD4⁺ T Cells to Immunodeficient Mice

Published on: December 16, 2021

An Intestinal Gut Organ Culture System for Analyzing Host-Microbiota Interactions

An Intestinal Gut Organ Culture System for Analyzing Host-Microbiota Interactions

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Epithelial cells, dendritic cells, and T regulatory cells are key in signal transduction.

Gut microbiota, enteric neurons, and the immune system exhibit complex interplay.

Conclusions:

Further research is needed to understand strain-specific immune responses.
Elucidating bacterial determinants can lead to clinically effective bacteria-based health strategies.