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The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) that activate TSH receptors, leading to excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and resulting in hyperthyroidism.Among all causes of hyperthyroidism, Graves’ disease is the most common and can happen at any age, though it is more frequent in women. It produces a hypermetabolic state with features such as weight loss, tachycardia, tremor, and heat...

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...

Goiter

Goiter

Goiter refers to an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland that may appear as a diffuse goiter (uniform enlargement) or nodular (single or multiple nodules). Functionally, it is classified as nontoxic (normal/low hormone levels) or toxic (excess hormone production).PathophysiologyDiffuse thyroid enlargement typically results from prolonged stimulation by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or TSH-like agents, commonly seen in hypothyroidism or iodine deficiency. In contrast, in hyperthyroid...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 13, 2026

Spontaneous Murine Model of Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer

Spontaneous Murine Model of Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer

Published on: February 3, 2023

Occult thyroid carcinoma.

J Boucek¹, J Kastner, J Skrivan

¹Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Charles University in Prague, University Hospital Motol, Prague, Czech Republic. jboucek99@seznam.cz

Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica : Organo Ufficiale Della Societa Italiana Di Otorinolaringologia E Chirurgia Cervico-Facciale

|May 14, 2010

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Identifying aggressive papillary thyroid microcarcinoma is crucial. This review discusses promising genetic and molecular markers for risk stratification, aiding in treatment decisions for this thyroid cancer.

Keywords:

Molecular markers Occult carcinoma Papillary microcarcinoma Therapeutic strategy Thyroid

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Area of Science:

Oncology
Genetics
Molecular Biology

Background:

Medical definitions evolve with diagnostic advancements.
Occult thyroid carcinoma encompasses various clinical scenarios.
Incidentally detected papillary thyroid microcarcinoma requires careful management.

Purpose of the Study:

To review promising genetic and molecular markers for papillary thyroid carcinoma risk stratification.
To identify markers for predicting aggressive behavior in small papillary thyroid microcarcinomas.
To assess the value of preoperative marker evaluation for guiding treatment.

Main Methods:

Review of current literature on genetic and molecular markers.
Analysis of ultrasonography-guided fine needle biopsy specimens.
Discussion of risk stratification strategies for papillary thyroid microcarcinoma.

Main Results:

Certain genetic and molecular markers show promise for risk stratification.
These markers can help identify papillary thyroid microcarcinomas with aggressive potential.
Preoperative evaluation of markers can inform therapeutic management.

Conclusions:

Genetic and molecular markers are valuable for papillary thyroid microcarcinoma risk stratification.
Identifying aggressive subtypes is key for appropriate treatment.
Preoperative marker analysis aids in personalized cancer care.