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A comparison of active and passive smoking during pregnancy: long-term effects
J Makin1, P A Fried, B Watkinson
1Department of Psychology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Insights
Maternal smoking during pregnancy, both active and passive, negatively impacts child development. Children exposed to secondhand smoke show developmental outcomes between those of active smokers and nonsmokers, indicating a risk continuum.
Area of Science:
- Neuroscience
- Developmental Psychology
- Public Health
Background:
- Maternal smoking during pregnancy is linked to adverse child outcomes.
- Consequences of fetal exposure to secondhand smoke are less understood.
Purpose of the Study:
- To investigate and compare long-term effects of active versus passive maternal smoking.
- To assess developmental outcomes in children aged 6-9 years.
Main Methods:
- Neuropsychological testing of 91 children (ages 6-9).
- Comparison between children of active smokers, passive smokers, and nonsmokers.
- Analysis controlled for potential confounding factors.
Main Results:
- Children of nonsmoking mothers outperformed smoking groups in speech, language, intelligence, and visual/spatial skills.
- Children of passive smokers performed between active smokers and nonsmokers across most measures.
- Maternal smoking (active and passive) was associated with poorer behavioral ratings.
Conclusions:
- A continuum of long-term smoking effects exists.
- Active maternal smoking has broader and more significant effects than passive smoking.
- Children exposed to passive smoke in utero are at risk for negative developmental outcomes.
Abstract:
Previous research has determined that maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with negative effects for the child at birth and throughout childhood. Much less is known about the consequences of exposure to secondary smoke during fetal development. The present study investigates and compares the long-term consequences of active and passive smoking during pregnancy. Ninety-one children between the ages of six and nine years were tested using a comprehensive neuropsychological test battery. After considering potential confounds, children of nonsmoking mothers generally were found to perform better than the two smoking groups on tests of speech and language skills, intelligence, visual/spatial abilities and on the mother's rating of behavior. The performance of children of passive smokers was found, in most areas, to be between that of the active smoking and nonsmoking groups. It was concluded that there is a continuum of long-term smoking effects and that, although active maternal smoking is associated with effects of greater breadth and magnitude than passive maternal smoking, children of passive smokers are also at risk for a pattern of negative developmental outcomes.