Smoking and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: part III: functional biomarkers influenced by smoking

Smoking cigarettes induces rapidly occurring and reversible functional changes in the cardiovascular system, which precede morphologic changes. These functional changes are also related to atherosclerotic disease development and thus may qualify as prognostic parameters in chronic smokers. As opposed to smoking-induced morphologic changes functional alterations occur and revert within minutes, thus, allowing for the detection of smoking-induced effects on the cardiovascular system within minutes following exposure to mainstream smoke. Some alterations represent 'direct' changes (e.g., endothelial function), others reflect changes in a different organ system (e.g., the autonomous nervous system influencing heart rate variability), while some represent the sum of alterations in many organs and systems (e.g., exercise performance influenced by the autonomous nervous and by endothelial and cardiac function). Since a specific functional parameter usually changes with at least one or several others, caution should be exercised when trying to establish a direct cause relationship between the alteration of a single parameter and a clinical outcome.