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Related Concept Videos

Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy: Overview01:09

Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy: Overview

When electromagnetic radiation passes through a material, atoms or molecules transition from a lower to a higher energy state by absorbing radiation corresponding to the energy difference between the two states. The absorption of infrared (IR) radiation causes transitions between vibrational energy levels in a molecule. Therefore, IR spectroscopy is a useful analytical tool for determining the molecular structure of molecules.
Different compounds display unique properties due to their...
IR Spectrometers01:25

IR Spectrometers

There are two main infrared (IR) spectrophotometers: dispersive IR spectrometers and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers. In a dispersive IR spectrometer, a beam of infrared radiation produced by a hot wire is divided into two parallel equal-intensity beams using mirrors. One beam passes through the sample, while another is a reference beam. The beams then move through the monochromator, which separates the radiations into a continuous spectrum of different frequencies. The...
IR Spectrum01:19

IR Spectrum

When infrared (IR) radiation passes through a molecule, the bonds stretch or bend by absorbing the radiation. This absorption creates the molecule's absorption spectrum, which is the plot of its percentage transmittance versus wavenumber.
Transmittance is defined as the ratio of the radiant power passing through a sample to that from the radiation's source. Multiplying the transmittance by 100 gives the percent transmittance (%T), which varies between 100% (no absorption) and 0% (complete...
IR Frequency Region: X–H Stretching01:24

IR Frequency Region: X–H Stretching

In IR spectroscopy, signals produced by the X−H bonds (such as C−H, O−H, or N−H) can be observed in the frequency range of  2700–4000 cm–1. The C−H stretching vibration forms sharp bands in the region 2850–3000 cm–1. The presence of the O−H stretching vibration leads to the forming of an absorption band in the frequency range 3650–3200 cm−1. At the same time, N−H stretching can be confirmed by absorption bands in the 3500–3100 cm−1 range. Even though both O−H and N−H bonds vibrate at a similar...
Phase Contrast and Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy01:26

Phase Contrast and Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy

Phase-Contrast Microscopes
In-phase-contrast microscopes, interference between light directly passing through a cell and light refracted by cellular components is used to create high-contrast, high-resolution images without staining. It is the oldest and simplest type of microscope that creates an image by altering the wavelengths of light rays passing through the specimen. Altered wavelength paths are created using an annular stop in the condenser. The annular stop produces a hollow cone of...
Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) Infrared Spectroscopy: Overview01:13

Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) Infrared Spectroscopy: Overview

Attenuated total reflectance (ATR) infrared spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique used to study the composition of materials. It is widely employed in chemistry, materials science, forensic science, and other fields where sample characterization is required. ATR has several advantages over traditional transmission IR spectroscopy, including the requirement of little to no sample preparation and the ability to analyze a wide range of samples.
The ATR process begins by directing a beam...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 12, 2026

Infrared Degenerate Four-wave Mixing with Upconversion Detection for Quantitative Gas Sensing
10:42

Infrared Degenerate Four-wave Mixing with Upconversion Detection for Quantitative Gas Sensing

Published on: March 22, 2019

Upconversion use for viewing and recording infrared images.

S A Pollack, D B Chang, I F Shih

    Applied Optics
    |June 5, 2010
    PubMed
    Summary

    Erbium-doped calcium fluoride crystals show cooperative luminescence when converting 1.54-microm radiation. The spatial resolution of upconversion imaging is limited by screen properties, not the luminescence process itself.

    Area of Science:

    • Materials Science
    • Optics
    • Solid State Physics

    Background:

    • Upconversion luminescence allows conversion of lower-energy photons to higher-energy ones.
    • Erbium-doped materials are known for their upconversion properties, particularly at 1.54 micrometers.
    • Understanding cooperative luminescence is key for developing new optical materials and devices.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To investigate the upconversion of 1.54-microm radiation in Er(3+)-doped CaF(2) crystals.
    • To analyze the intensity dependence and temporal behavior of the upconverted radiation.
    • To evaluate the spatial resolution limitations of upconversion imaging systems using these crystals.

    Main Methods:

    • Experimental measurements of intensity dependence and temporal behavior of upconverted radiation.

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  • Spatial distribution analysis using a silicon diode matrix array (DMA).
  • Irradiation of CaF(2):Er(3+) screens with an Er laser.

    • Main Results:

    • Experimental results qualitatively agree with a cooperative luminescence model.
    • Spatial resolution is limited by screen granularity/thickness, not the luminescence process.
    • A computer-based system with screen-DMA achieved good 1.54-microm beam profile results.
    • Linear intensity dependence without DMA saturation was achieved using neutral density filters.

    Conclusions:

    • Cooperative luminescence in CaF(2):Er(3+) is a viable process for upconversion.
    • Screen properties are critical for achieving high-resolution upconversion imaging.
    • The developed system demonstrates effective 1.54-microm beam profiling capabilities.