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Nondisjunction

Nondisjunction

Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate correctly and move to the opposite poles of the cells. This produces daughter cells with abnormal chromosome numbers. Nondisjunction is common during anaphase I or anaphase II of meiosis. Mutations in synaptonemal complex proteins that attach homologous chromosomes increase the chances of nondisjunction in anaphase I of meiosis I. In contrast, mutations in topoisomerases and condensins that hold sister...

Nondisjunction

Nondisjunction

During meiosis, chromosomes occasionally separate improperly. This occurs due to failure of homologous chromosome separation during meiosis I or failed sister chromatid separation during meiosis II. In some species, notably plants, nondisjunction can result in an organism with an entire additional set of chromosomes, which is called polyploidy. In humans, nondisjunction can occur during male or female gametogenesis and the resulting gametes possess one too many or one too few chromosomes.

Sex Linked Disorders

Sex Linked Disorders

Like autosomes, sex chromosomes contain a variety of genes necessary for normal body function. When a mutation in one of these genes results in biological deficits, the disorder is considered sex-linked.

Disorders of the Female Reproductive System

Disorders of the Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system can be affected by several disorders, including Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS), Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD), endometriosis, and various forms of cancer. PMS and PMDD are cyclical conditions that cause physical and emotional distress, with symptoms that include edema, mood swings, and food cravings. PMDD is a more severe form of PMS characterized by increased symptom severity that peaks during the luteal phase and tends to improve or resolve shortly after...

Oogenesis

Oogenesis

In human women, oogenesis produces one mature egg cell or ovum for every precursor cell that enters meiosis. This process differs in two unique ways from the equivalent procedure of spermatogenesis in males. First, meiotic divisions during oogenesis are asymmetric, meaning that a large oocyte (containing most of the cytoplasm) and minor polar body are produced as a result of meiosis I, and again following meiosis II. Since only oocytes will go on to form embryos if fertilized, this unequal...

Meiosis vs. Mitosis

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Cell division is necessary for growth and reproduction in organisms. Mitosis aids cell growth and development by dividing somatic cells. In contrast, meiosis causes the division of germ cells and plays an essential role in sexual reproduction. Due to their unique functional requirements, mitosis and meiosis differ from each other in multiple aspects.
Before the start of mitosis and meiosis I, the cell synthesizes DNA, resulting in two homologous copies of each chromosome. DNA synthesis is...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 12, 2026

Visualizing DNA Damage Repair Proteins in Patient-Derived Ovarian Cancer Organoids via Immunofluorescence Assays

Visualizing DNA Damage Repair Proteins in Patient-Derived Ovarian Cancer Organoids via Immunofluorescence Assays

Published on: February 24, 2023

Gonadal tumours and DSD.

Leendert H J Looijenga¹, Remko Hersmus, Bertie H C G M de Leeuw

¹Department of Pathology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center Rotterdam, Josephine Nefkens Institute, Daniel den Hoed Cancer Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. l.looijenga@erasmusmc.nl

Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism

|June 15, 2010

Summary

Disorders of sex development (DSD) increase the risk of germ cell tumors (GCTs) in adolescent males. Research is exploring factors influencing this risk to improve early diagnosis and avoid overtreatment.

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Area of Science:

Reproductive Medicine
Oncology
Genetics

Background:

Disorders of Sex Development (DSD), previously termed intersex, are recognized risk factors for germ cell tumors (GCTs).
Type II GCTs, including seminomas and non-seminomas, are the most frequent testicular cancers in adolescent and young adult Caucasian males.

Observation:

Despite lacking dysgenetic gonads, these males exhibit similar GCTs, suggesting shared genetic or environmental etiological factors.
The risk of malignant germ cell transformation in DSD patients is highly variable, influenced by identified and emerging parameters.

Findings:

Recent insights into DSD and GCT development highlight a heterogeneous risk profile.
Understanding these parameters is crucial for accurate risk stratification.

Implications:

Further research aims to develop a clinical decision tree for DSD patients.
The goal is to enable optimal, early GCT diagnosis while preventing overtreatment, such as unnecessary prophylactic gonadectomy.