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Related Concept Videos

Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle01:22

Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle

The ovarian cycle regulates endometrial changes throughout a single menstrual cycle via the coordinated action of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and gonadotrophins.
At puberty, GnRH begins a pulsatile release pattern, which triggers the anterior pituitary gland to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). The frequency and amplitude of GnRH pulses vary across the menstrual cycle, with faster pulses favoring LH release and slower pulses favoring FSH release.
Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle01:30

Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle

The ovarian cycle is meticulously regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. This cycle orchestrates the release of a mature oocyte, essential for reproduction.
Before puberty, the hypothalamus releases GnRH in a low frequency, low amplitude pulsatile manner. This along with the immature hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis activity, results in low estrogen levels and the absence of a fully functional ovarian cycle.  At puberty, GnRH secretion increases in both frequency and...
The Menstrual Cycle01:19

The Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle is a recurrent sequence of changes in the uterine endometrium, specifically its functional layer, the stratum functionalis. This cycle prepares the uterus for potential pregnancy. This cycle typically spans 21–35 days, averaging 28 days, and aligns with the ovarian cycle, regulated by fluctuating levels of ovarian hormones, primarily estrogen and progesterone.
The menstrual phase occurs from days 1 to 5 and involves the shedding of the stratum functionalis, as a uterine...
Menses Phase01:18

Menses Phase

The uterine cycle begins with the menstrual phase, which is considered day one of the cycle and typically lasts about five days. This phase is characterized by the degeneration and shedding of the stratum functionalis, the functional layer of the endometrium.
When fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum deteriorates, causing a significant drop in the levels of estrogen and progesterone in the body. This hormonal decrease triggers the release of prostaglandins, which cause the uterine...
Ovarian Cycle01:27

Ovarian Cycle

The menstrual cycle includes a critical component known as the ovarian cycle, which undergoes two main phases each month—the follicular phase and the luteal phase. The follicular phase is variable and averaging around 14 days. Ovulation, triggered by a surge in luteinizing hormone (LH), marks the transition between the two phases. The second phase, the luteal phase, is relatively consistent, lasting approximately 14 days, and is marked by the activity of the corpus luteum. While a cycle length...
Brain Imaging01:14

Brain Imaging

Brain imaging technologies provide critical insights into both the structure and function of the human brain, enabling medical professionals and researchers to diagnose, study, and treat neurological disorders or psychiatric disorders more effectively.
These technologies include computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT scans), positron-emission tomography (PET scans),  magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),  functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS).

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Updated: Jun 12, 2026

Rodent Estrous Cycle Monitoring Utilizing Vaginal Lavage: No Such Thing As a Normal Cycle
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Rodent Estrous Cycle Monitoring Utilizing Vaginal Lavage: No Such Thing As a Normal Cycle

Published on: August 30, 2021

Menstrual cycle and hormonal contraceptive use modulate human brain structure.

Belinda Pletzer1, Martin Kronbichler, Markus Aichhorn

  • 1Department of Cell Biology, Paris-Lodron-University Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria. Belinda.Pletzer@sbg.ac.at

Brain Research
|June 17, 2010
PubMed
Summary

Men and women exhibit distinct brain structures, influenced by menstrual cycle phase and hormonal contraceptives. These factors significantly alter gray matter volumes in specific brain regions.

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Human Anatomy
  • Endocrinology

Background:

  • Sex differences in human brain structure are documented but inconsistent.
  • Previous studies often overlooked the influence of menstrual cycle phase and hormonal contraceptive use in women.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the impact of menstrual cycle phase and hormonal contraceptive use on human brain structure.
  • To clarify inconsistencies in reported sex differences in brain morphology.

Main Methods:

  • Acquired high-resolution structural brain images from 14 men, 14 women not using hormonal contraceptives, and 14 women using hormonal contraceptives.
  • Scanned women not using contraceptives twice: during early follicular and mid-luteal phases.
  • Compared regional gray matter volumes using voxel-based morphometry.

Main Results:

  • Men exhibited larger hippocampi, parahippocampal and fusiform gyri, amygdalae, and basal ganglia than women.
  • Women displayed larger gray matter volumes in the prefrontal cortex, pre- and postcentral gyri.
  • Menstrual cycle phase and hormonal contraceptives modulated these sex-dependent effects.
  • Larger volumes in the right fusiform/parahippocampal gyrus were observed during the early follicular phase compared to the mid-luteal phase.
  • Women using hormonal contraceptives showed significantly larger prefrontal cortices, pre- and postcentral gyri, parahippocampal and fusiform gyri, and temporal regions compared to non-users.

Conclusions:

  • Menstrual cycle phase and hormonal contraceptive use significantly influence human brain structure.
  • These factors are critical confounders in studies of sex differences in brain morphology.
  • Understanding these modulations is essential for accurate interpretation of neuroimaging findings.