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Related Concept Videos

X-ray Diffraction of Biological Samples01:10

X-ray Diffraction of Biological Samples

X-ray diffraction or XRD is an analytical tool that utilizes X-rays to study ordered structures such as crystalline organic and inorganic samples, polycrystalline materials, proteins, carbohydrates, and drugs.
According to Bragg's law, when X-rays strike the sample positioned on a stage, the rays are  scattered by the electron clouds around the sample atoms. The  X-ray diffraction or scattering is caused by constructive interference of the X-ray waves that reflect off the internal crystal...
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Diffraction
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Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy

Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy or TIRF is an advanced microscopic technique used to visualize fluorophores in samples close to a solid surface with a higher refractive index, such as a glass coverslip. TIRF only allows fluorophores in proximity to the solid surface to be excited. When light from a medium with a lower refractive index (such as air) hits the glass coverslip at a critical angle, the light undergoes total internal reflection stead of passing through the glass.
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Super-resolution Fluorescence Microscopy

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X-ray Imaging

German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923) was experimenting with electrical current when he discovered that a mysterious and invisible "ray" would pass through his flesh but leave an outline of his bones on a screen coated with a metal compound. In 1895, Röntgen made the first durable record of the internal parts of a living human: an "X-ray" image (as it came to be called) of his wife’s hand. Scientists worldwide quickly began their own experiments with X-rays, and by 1900, X-ray was widely...
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Determination of Crystal Structures

In the late 1800s, the revelation that light extended beyond visible wavelengths led to the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen. Recognized as high-energy electromagnetic radiation with short wavelengths, X-rays prompted exploration into their interaction with crystals. Max von Laue proposed in 1912 that the periodic arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in crystals would cause them to diffract X-rays, a hypothesis confirmed through experiments with copper sulfate and zinc sulfide...

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Updated: Jun 9, 2026

Synchrotron X-ray Microdiffraction and Fluorescence Imaging of Mineral and Rock Samples
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Published on: June 19, 2018

Quartz inhomogeneity effects in diffraction-limited deep ultraviolet imaging.

A K Pfau, W N Partlo, R Hsu

    Applied Optics
    |August 25, 2010
    PubMed
    Summary

    A ghost image aberration in deep ultraviolet lithography lenses was traced to periodic refractive index variations in fused-silica beam splitters. These manufacturing-related striations caused significant ghost images at 248 nm.

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    Stress Distribution During Cold Compression of Rocks and Mineral Aggregates Using Synchrotron-based X-Ray Diffraction
    10:36

    Stress Distribution During Cold Compression of Rocks and Mineral Aggregates Using Synchrotron-based X-Ray Diffraction

    Published on: May 20, 2018

    Area of Science:

    • Optical Engineering
    • Materials Science
    • Semiconductor Manufacturing

    Background:

    • High numerical aperture (N.A.) deep ultraviolet (DUV) lenses are critical for submicrometer lithography.
    • Imaging aberrations can significantly impact pattern fidelity and yield in semiconductor fabrication.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To investigate the origin of a ghost image aberration observed in a high-N.A. DUV lithography lens.
    • To identify the component responsible for the ghost image and characterize its properties.

    Main Methods:

    • Optical performance analysis of a DUV lithography system.
    • Microscopic examination and refractive index profiling of optical components.
    • Diffraction efficiency measurements of phase gratings formed by index variations.

    Main Results:

    • A ghost image was detected, displaced from the primary image, in the DUV lithography system.
    • The ghost aberration was attributed to periodic variations in the refractive index of fused-silica beam splitters.
    • Index striations, likely from manufacturing, were present in multiple beam splitters and acted as phase gratings.
    • Diffraction efficiency showed strong wavelength dependence, with significant ghost image intensity (~2%) at 248 nm.

    Conclusions:

    • Periodic refractive index variations in fused-silica beam splitters are a source of ghost image aberrations in DUV lithography.
    • Manufacturing processes for beam splitters can introduce defects leading to significant optical performance degradation.
    • Understanding and mitigating these index striations is crucial for achieving high-resolution submicrometer lithography.