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Related Concept Videos

Homologous Recombination02:31

Homologous Recombination

The basic reaction of homologous recombination (HR) involves two chromatids that contain DNA sequences sharing a significant stretch of identity. One of these sequences uses a strand from another as a template to synthesize DNA in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. The final product is a novel amalgamation of the two substrates. To ensure an accurate recombination of sequences, HR is restricted to the S and G2 phases of the cell cycle. At these stages, the DNA has been replicated already and the...
ATP and Macromolecule Synthesis01:28

ATP and Macromolecule Synthesis

Biological macromolecules are organic compounds, predominantly composed of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are covalently bonded with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other minor elements. There are four major biological macromolecule classes: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Most macromolecules are composed of single subunits, or building blocks, called monomers. The monomers combine with each other using covalent bonds to form larger molecules known as polymers.
Conversion of...
Radical Reactivity: Overview01:11

Radical Reactivity: Overview

Radicals, the highly reactive species, gain stability by undergoing three different reactions. The first reaction involves a radical-radical coupling, in which a radical combines with another radical, forming a spin‐paired molecule. The second reaction is between a radical and a spin‐paired molecule, generating a new radical and a new spin‐paired molecule. The third reaction is radical decomposition in a unimolecular reaction, forming a new radical and a spin‐paired molecule. These three...
Reaction Mechanisms03:06

Reaction Mechanisms

Chemical reactions often occur in a stepwise fashion, involving two or more distinct reactions taking place in a sequence. A balanced equation indicates the reacting species and the product species, but it reveals no details about how the reaction occurs at the molecular level. The reaction mechanism (or reaction path) provides details regarding the precise, step-by-step process by which a reaction occurs.
For instance, the decomposition of ozone appears to follow a mechanism with two steps:
Multi-Step Reactions02:31

Multi-Step Reactions

Chemical reactions often occur in a stepwise fashion involving two or more distinct reactions taking place in a sequence. A balanced equation indicates the reacting species and the product species, but it reveals no details about how the reaction occurs at the molecular level. The reaction mechanism (or reaction path) provides details regarding the precise, step-by-step process by which a reaction occurs. Each of the steps in a reaction mechanism is called an elementary reaction. These...
Chain Reactions01:29

Chain Reactions

Chain reactions involve highly reactive transient species, such as atoms or free radicals, as intermediates. These intermediates facilitate rapid reactions over an extended period. The process includes a series of steps: a reactive intermediate is consumed, reactants are converted to products, and the intermediate is regenerated. This cycle enables continuous repetition, amplifying the production of products with a small amount of intermediate. Chain reactions often utilize free radicals as...

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[Observation on efficacy of large volume whole lung lavage in treatment of pneumoconiosis].

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[Application of large volume whole lung lavage in pneumoconiosis].

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 9, 2026

Real-time Observation of the DNA Strand Exchange Reaction Mediated by Rad51
06:24

Real-time Observation of the DNA Strand Exchange Reaction Mediated by Rad51

Published on: February 13, 2019

RNA reactions one molecule at a time.

Ignacio Tinoco1, Gang Chen, Xiaohui Qu

  • 1Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-1460, USA. intinoco@lbl.gov

Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
|August 27, 2010
PubMed
Summary

Single-molecule techniques like FRET and force measurements reveal RNA dynamics lost in bulk studies. These methods illuminate RNA folding, mechanical properties, and molecular motor mechanisms.

Area of Science:

  • Biochemistry
  • Molecular Biology
  • Biophysics

Background:

  • Bulk measurements average molecular behavior, obscuring crucial dynamics.
  • Single-molecule methods offer high-resolution insights into individual molecular events.
  • RNA molecules play vital roles in biological processes, necessitating detailed mechanistic understanding.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the application of single-molecule techniques to RNA reactions.
  • To highlight how single-molecule methods overcome limitations of bulk measurements.
  • To showcase advancements in understanding RNA folding, mechanics, and molecular motors.

Main Methods:

  • Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) for probing conformational changes.
  • Force versus extension measurements (e.g., optical tweezers) for mechanical stability.

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Detection of Homologous Recombination Intermediates via Proximity Ligation and Quantitative PCR in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
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Detection of Homologous Recombination Intermediates via Proximity Ligation and Quantitative PCR in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

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Chemical Triphosphorylation of Oligonucleotides
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Chemical Triphosphorylation of Oligonucleotides

Published on: June 2, 2022

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Last Updated: Jun 9, 2026

Real-time Observation of the DNA Strand Exchange Reaction Mediated by Rad51
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Real-time Observation of the DNA Strand Exchange Reaction Mediated by Rad51

Published on: February 13, 2019

Detection of Homologous Recombination Intermediates via Proximity Ligation and Quantitative PCR in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
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Detection of Homologous Recombination Intermediates via Proximity Ligation and Quantitative PCR in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

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Chemical Triphosphorylation of Oligonucleotides

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  • Single-molecule assays to study enzyme-nucleic acid interactions and translation.

    • Main Results:

    • Identified multiple conformations and distinct kinetics in RNA folding (hairpin ribozyme).
    • Correlated mechanical stability of RNA pseudoknots with translation frameshifting efficiency.
    • Elucidated mechanisms of HIV reverse transcriptase and helicase interactions with substrates.
    • Revealed translocation-and-pause cycles in single messenger RNA translation by ribosomes.
    • Provided insights into ribosome conformational changes and tRNA dynamics during translation.

    Conclusions:

    • Single-molecule experiments are invaluable for deciphering complex RNA reaction mechanisms.
    • These techniques provide dynamic and mechanistic information unattainable by bulk methods.
    • Advancements in single-molecule approaches continue to deepen our understanding of RNA biology.