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Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age01:09

Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age

The upper and lower limb initially develops as a small bulge called a limb bud, which appears on the lateral side of the early embryo. The upper limb bud appears near the end of the fourth week of development, with the lower limb bud appearing shortly after.
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Introduction to the Skeletal System01:20

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Bone Formation by Endochondral Ossification01:24

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 8, 2026

Practical Considerations for the Design, Execution, and Interpretation of Studies Involving Whole-Bone Bending Tests of Rodent Bones
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Published on: September 1, 2023

Smaller, weaker, and less stiff bones evolve from changes in subsistence strategy.

N C Nowlan1, K J Jepsen, E F Morgan

  • 1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, 110 Cummington Street, Boston, MA 02215, USA. nowlann@tcd.ie

Osteoporosis International : a Journal Established As Result of Cooperation Between the European Foundation for Osteoporosis and the National Osteoporosis Foundation of the USA
|September 22, 2010
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Evolutionary changes in lifestyle, from hunter-gatherer to modern, are predicted to decrease bone size and strength. This may lead to increased fracture risk and osteoporosis prevalence in future generations.

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Area of Science:

  • Evolutionary biology
  • Biomechanics
  • Human evolution

Background:

  • Archeological evidence indicates a decrease in bone size and strength over evolutionary time.
  • Shifting subsistence strategies and physical activity levels are hypothesized to drive these changes.
  • Transitions from hunter-gatherer to agricultural and modern lifestyles are key periods of investigation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To computationally model the evolution of bone growth and mechanoregulation.
  • To examine the impact of changing lifestyles on bone structure and strength.
  • To predict future trends in bone health.

Main Methods:

  • Simulation of gene evolution governing bone growth and mechanoregulation.
  • Representation of individuals by 2-D bone cross-sections.
  • Modeling of periosteal and endosteal expansion, and ash content in response to mechanical strain.

Main Results:

  • Predicted decrease in cortical bone area and structural strength (section modulus).
  • Predicted increase in maximum compressive strain.
  • Observed continued, albeit small, decreases in bone size, strength, and stiffness in modern populations.

Conclusions:

  • Changing loading patterns and evolutionary pressures influence bone evolution.
  • Future generations may experience reduced bone size and strength.
  • Increased risk of bone fracture and osteoporosis is a potential consequence.