Search research articles

ABOUT JoVE

Overview Leadership Blog JoVE Help Center

AUTHORS

Publishing Process Editorial Board Scope & Policies Peer Review FAQ Submit

LIBRARIANS

Testimonials Subscriptions Access Resources Library Advisory Board FAQ

RESEARCH

JoVE Journal Methods Collections JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments Archive

EDUCATION

JoVE Core JoVE Business JoVE Science Education JoVE Lab Manual Faculty Resource Center Faculty Site

Terms & Conditions of Use

Related Concept Videos

Vaccinations

Vaccinations

Smallpox

Smallpox

Smallpox is a severe contagious disease caused by the Variola major virus, a double-stranded DNA member of the Poxviridae family.Variola major transmission occurs primarily via inhalation of virus-laden droplets or direct contact with infectious scabs. The incubation period averages approximately seven days, although it may range from 7 to 17 days depending on the inoculum and host factors.Clinically, the prodromal phase is marked by an abrupt onset of high fever, malaise, headache, and myalgia.

Tumor Immunotherapy

Tumor Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is a treatment that boosts or manipulates the immune system to fight diseases, including cancer. For instance, by stimulating an immune response through vaccinations against viruses that cause cancers, like hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus, these diseases can be prevented. Nonetheless, some cancer cells can avoid the immune system due to their rapid mutation and division. The immune response to many cancers involves three phases: elimination, equilibrium, and escape.

Vaccines

Vaccines

Vaccines are among the most effective tools in preventive medicine, designed to prepare the immune system to recognize and combat infectious agents. By introducing antigens—substances that the immune system identifies as foreign—vaccines stimulate an adaptive immune response that leads to immunological memory. This immunological memory enables the body to mount a faster and more effective response upon future exposures to the actual pathogen.Vaccines can be categorized based on the type of...

Hypersensitivities

Hypersensitivities

Hypersensitivity, also known as a hypersensitivity reaction or allergic reaction, is a condition where the body's immune system reacts abnormally to a foreign substance. Such substances, that cause hypersensitivity are referred to as an allergen, could be something typically harmless to most people, like pollen or certain foods.
Types of Hypersensitivities
Hypersensitivity reactions are categorized into four types: Type 1, Type 2, Type 3, and Type 4. Each type has a distinct mechanism...

Cancer Vaccines

Cancer Vaccines

Cancer treatment vaccines are a rapidly evolving field that offers a promising approach to immunotherapy. Unlike traditional vaccines that prevent diseases, cancer treatment vaccines are designed to treat existing cancers by stimulating the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells.
Cancer vaccines come in two categories: preventive (prophylactic) and treatment (active). Preventive vaccines, such as the Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, protect against viruses that cause certain...

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by

Same author

Chemical modification of cholera toxin for characterization of antigenic receptor-binding and toxic sites.

FEBS letters·2017

Same author

Lack of Fc Gamma Receptor IIIA Promotes Rather than Suppresses Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses after Mucosal or Parenteral Immunization with Antigen and Adjuvants.

Scandinavian journal of immunology·2017

Same author

Antigen-bearing dendritic cells from the sublingual mucosa recirculate to distant systemic lymphoid organs to prime mucosal CD8 T cells.

Mucosal immunology·2013

Same author

Development and preclinical evaluation of safety and immunogenicity of an oral ETEC vaccine containing inactivated E. coli bacteria overexpressing colonization factors CFA/I, CS3, CS5 and CS6 combined with a hybrid LT/CT B subunit antigen, administered alone and together with dmLT adjuvant.

Vaccine·2013

Same author

Clinical trial to evaluate safety and immunogenicity of an oral inactivated enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli prototype vaccine containing CFA/I overexpressing bacteria and recombinantly produced LTB/CTB hybrid protein.

Vaccine·2013

Same author

Anti-bacterial and anti-toxic immunity induced by a killed whole-cell-cholera toxin B subunit cholera vaccine is essential for protection against lethal bacterial infection in mouse pulmonary cholera model.

Mucosal immunology·2012

Search research articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 8, 2026

Intralymphatic Immunotherapy and Vaccination in Mice

Intralymphatic Immunotherapy and Vaccination in Mice

Published on: February 2, 2014

Topical immunization strategies.

C Czerkinsky¹, J Holmgren

¹International Vaccine Institute, Seoul, South Korea. cczerkinsky@ivi.int

Mucosal Immunology

|September 24, 2010

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Developing effective mucosal vaccines requires needle-free topical delivery systems. These vaccines must be safe, protect all ages, and work in immunocompromised individuals, especially in resource-poor settings.

More Related Videos

Murine Model of Epicutaneously-Induced Immunomodulation

Murine Model of Epicutaneously-Induced Immunomodulation

Published on: June 24, 2025

Sublingual Immunotherapy as an Alternative to Induce Protection Against Acute Respiratory Infections

Sublingual Immunotherapy as an Alternative to Induce Protection Against Acute Respiratory Infections

Published on: August 30, 2014

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 8, 2026

Intralymphatic Immunotherapy and Vaccination in Mice

Intralymphatic Immunotherapy and Vaccination in Mice

Published on: February 2, 2014

Murine Model of Epicutaneously-Induced Immunomodulation

Murine Model of Epicutaneously-Induced Immunomodulation

Published on: June 24, 2025

Sublingual Immunotherapy as an Alternative to Induce Protection Against Acute Respiratory Infections

Sublingual Immunotherapy as an Alternative to Induce Protection Against Acute Respiratory Infections

Published on: August 30, 2014

Area of Science:

Vaccinology
Immunology
Public Health

Background:

Numerous vaccine candidates target mucosal infections, yet few are approved for human use.
Research focuses on new adjuvants, delivery systems (live vectors), and targeting molecules for mucosal vaccines.

Purpose of the Study:

To highlight critical considerations for developing and implementing mucosal vaccines, particularly in resource-limited settings.
To emphasize the need for needle-free, topical vaccine administration routes.

Main Methods:

Review of clinical and field research findings related to mucosal vaccine development and deployment.
Analysis of challenges in vaccine administration and immune response measurement, especially in infants.

Main Results:

Few mucosal vaccines are registered, necessitating advancements in adjuvant and delivery system research.
Topical vaccines administered without needles are crucial for accessibility and broad protection.
Vaccine strategies must account for anatomical immune compartmentalization and specific age groups.

Conclusions:

Developing safe, effective, and broadly applicable topical mucosal vaccines is essential for global health.
Route selection for immunization is critical for organ-specific infections, especially in vulnerable populations.
Addressing challenges in resource-poor settings is key to successful vaccine implementation.