Histopathologic effects of anoxia on the central nervous system

An ischemic stroke occurs when a cerebral blood vessel becomes obstructed, most often by a thrombus or embolus, interrupting the delivery of oxygen and glucose to brain tissue. Because neurons rely on continuous aerobic metabolism, energy failure begins within minutes of reduced perfusion. The region receiving the least blood flow becomes the infarct core, an area of irreversible cellular death. Surrounding this core lies the penumbra, a zone of hypoperfused but still viable tissue that is...

Hypoxia is a medical condition characterized by an inadequate oxygen supply to body tissues. It typically manifests as a bluish discoloration of the skin and mucosae, especially in fair-skinned individuals, when hemoglobin (Hb) saturation drops below 75%.
Types of Hypoxia
There are four primary types of hypoxia, each resulting from a different cause:
1. Anemic hypoxia: This type occurs due to insufficient oxygen delivery caused by a lack of red blood cells (RBCs) or RBCs with abnormal or...

While local anesthetics are generally safe and well-tolerated, they can occasionally cause adverse effects that vary in severity. Local anesthetics can induce toxicity at two distinct levels. They can either produce local effects through direct contact with the neural elements or be absorbed into the bloodstream from the injection site, leading to systemic effects.
Once absorbed into the systemic circulation, local anesthetics can affect the organs that depend on the functioning of sodium...

DefinitionHepatic encephalopathy is a reversible neurologic syndrome that results from advanced liver dysfunction or portosystemic shunting. It leads to disturbances in cognition, behavior, and motor function due to the brain’s exposure to gut-derived toxins that the liver fails to detoxify.EtiologyThis condition develops either in the setting of acute fulminant hepatitis or progressively during chronic liver disease, such as cirrhosis and portal hypertension. Portosystemic shunting—including...