Jove
Visualize
Contact Us
JoVE
x logofacebook logolinkedin logoyoutube logo
ABOUT JoVE
OverviewLeadershipBlogJoVE Help Center
AUTHORS
Publishing ProcessEditorial BoardScope & PoliciesPeer ReviewFAQSubmit
LIBRARIANS
TestimonialsSubscriptionsAccessResourcesLibrary Advisory BoardFAQ
RESEARCH
JoVE JournalMethods CollectionsJoVE Encyclopedia of ExperimentsArchive
EDUCATION
JoVE CoreJoVE BusinessJoVE Science EducationJoVE Lab ManualFaculty Resource CenterFaculty Site
Terms & Conditions of Use
Privacy Policy
Policies

Related Concept Videos

Channel Rhodopsins01:11

Channel Rhodopsins

Most organisms use photoreceptors to sense and respond to light. Examples of photoreceptors include bacteriorhodopsins and bacteriophytochromes in some bacteria, phytochromes in plants, and rhodopsins in the photoreceptor cells of the vertebral retina. The light-sensitive property of these receptors is because of the bound chromophores, such as bilin in the phytochromes and retinal in the rhodopsins.
Rhodopsins belong to the family of cell surface proteins called G-protein coupled receptors,...
Photoreceptors and Visual Pathways01:22

Photoreceptors and Visual Pathways

At the molecular level, visual signals trigger transformations in photopigment molecules, resulting in changes in the photoreceptor cell's membrane potential. The photon's energy level is denoted by its wavelength, with each specific wavelength of visible light associated with a distinct color. The spectral range of visible light, classified as electromagnetic radiation, spans from 380 to 720 nm. Electromagnetic radiation wavelengths exceeding 720 nm fall under the infrared category, whereas...
G-Protein Gated Ion Channels01:21

G-Protein Gated Ion Channels

GPCRs are primarily responsible for our sense of smell, taste, and vision.  The binding of a sensory stimulus activates GPCR to stimulate effector proteins, many of which are ion channels in the sensory organs. GPCRs modulate the opening and closing of the target ion channels either directly by binding them, or by releasing second messengers that activate these channels. As ions move across the membrane, the membrane potential is altered, which induces an appropriate response.
Sensory organs,...
Anatomy of the Eyeball01:20

Anatomy of the Eyeball

The eye is a spherical, hollow structure composed of three tissue layers. The outer layer — the fibrous tunic, comprises the sclera — a white structure — and the cornea, which is transparent. The sclera encompasses some of the ocular surface, most of which is not visible. However, the 'white of the eye' is distinctively visible in humans compared to other species. The cornea, a clear covering at the front of the eye, enables light penetration. The eye's middle layer, the vascular tunic,...
The Retina01:32

The Retina

The retina is a layer of nervous tissue at the back of the eye that transduces light into neural signals. This process, called phototransduction, is carried out by rod and cone photoreceptor cells in the back of the retina.
The Photochemical Reaction Center01:29

The Photochemical Reaction Center

Reaction centers are pigment-protein complexes that initiate energy conversion from photons to chemical entities. Therefore, photochemical reaction center is a more appropriate term that describes these complexes. The Nobel laureates Robert Emerson and William Arnold provided the first experimental evidence of photochemical reaction centers by demonstrating the participation of nearly 2,500 chlorophyll molecules for the release of just one molecule of oxygen. Despite thousands of photosynthetic...

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by
Same author

Spatial Subdomains in the Optic Tectum for the Encoding of Visual Information.

The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience·2026
Same author

Strikingly different neurotransmitter release strategies in dopaminergic subclasses.

eLife·2025
Same author

U7 small nuclear RNA splice-switching therapeutics for STMN2 and UNC13A in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.

bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology·2025
Same author

TDP-43-dependent mis-splicing of KCNQ2 triggers intrinsic neuronal hyperexcitability in ALS/FTD.

Nature neuroscience·2025
Same author

Functional Maturation and Experience-Dependent Plasticity in Adult-Born Olfactory Bulb Dopaminergic Neurons.

The European journal of neuroscience·2025
Same author

A workflow for semi-automated volume correlative light microscopy and transmission electron tomography.

Journal of microscopy·2025

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 7, 2026

Long-range Channelrhodopsin-assisted Circuit Mapping of Inferior Colliculus Neurons with Blue and Red-shifted Channelrhodopsins
07:04

Long-range Channelrhodopsin-assisted Circuit Mapping of Inferior Colliculus Neurons with Blue and Red-shifted Channelrhodopsins

Published on: February 7, 2020

Channelrhodopsin-2 localised to the axon initial segment.

Matthew S Grubb1, Juan Burrone

  • 1Medical Research Council Centre for Developmental Neurobiology, King's College London, London, United Kingdom. matthew.grubb@kcl.ac.uk

Plos One
|November 5, 2010
PubMed
Summary

Researchers engineered Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) for the axon initial segment (AIS), a key neuronal site. While not achieving baseline action potential control, it enabled light-induced firing when potassium channels were blocked, suggesting potential for subthreshold modulation.

More Related Videos

Channelrhodopsin2 Mediated Stimulation of Synaptic Potentials at Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions
09:12

Channelrhodopsin2 Mediated Stimulation of Synaptic Potentials at Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions

Published on: March 16, 2009

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins
08:39

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins

Published on: May 22, 2017

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 7, 2026

Long-range Channelrhodopsin-assisted Circuit Mapping of Inferior Colliculus Neurons with Blue and Red-shifted Channelrhodopsins
07:04

Long-range Channelrhodopsin-assisted Circuit Mapping of Inferior Colliculus Neurons with Blue and Red-shifted Channelrhodopsins

Published on: February 7, 2020

Channelrhodopsin2 Mediated Stimulation of Synaptic Potentials at Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions
09:12

Channelrhodopsin2 Mediated Stimulation of Synaptic Potentials at Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions

Published on: March 16, 2009

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins
08:39

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins

Published on: May 22, 2017

Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Optogenetics
  • Molecular Biology

Background:

  • Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) is a light-gated ion channel used for neuronal control.
  • Existing ChR2 variants target plasma membrane, somatodendritic, or synaptic domains.
  • Targeting ChR2 to the axon initial segment (AIS) offers precise control of action potential initiation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop and characterize a ChR2 construct localized to the AIS.
  • To investigate the feasibility of optogenetic control of neuronal firing via AIS targeting.
  • To explore potential applications for AIS-targeted ChR2.

Main Methods:

  • Constructed a ChR2 variant (ChR2-YFP-Na(v)II-III) with an ankyrinG-binding motif for AIS localization.
  • Expressed the construct in cultured rat hippocampal neurons.
  • Assessed neuronal electrical properties and light-induced responses, including under potassium channel blockade.

Main Results:

  • ChR2-YFP-Na(v)II-III localized to the AIS without altering neuronal passive or active electrical properties.
  • AIS-targeted ChR2 produced small currents and depolarizations, insufficient for action potential firing under baseline conditions.
  • Action potentials were successfully evoked by light in ChR2-YFP-Na(v)II-III neurons when KCNQ channels were blocked.

Conclusions:

  • AIS-targeted ChR2 expression is feasible and does not disrupt intrinsic neuronal properties.
  • Achieving optogenetic control of action potential firing via AIS targeting requires optimization, potentially by modulating downstream conductances.
  • The developed ChR2-YFP-Na(v)II-III probe may be useful for studies requiring subthreshold modulation of neuronal excitability near the AIS.