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Related Concept Videos

Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Nomenclature03:34

Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Nomenclature

An element composed of atoms that readily lose electrons (a metal) can react with an element composed of atoms that readily gain electrons (a nonmetal) to produce ions through complete electron transfer. The compound formed by this transfer is stabilized by the electrostatic attractions (ionic bonds) between the oppositely charged ions.
Hydration of Cement01:24

Hydration of Cement

Hydration of cement is a chemical reaction between cement particles and water. This process occurs primarily through two mechanisms: through-solution and topochemical. In the through-solution process, anhydrous compounds dissolve into their constituents, hydrates form in the solution, and then precipitate from the supersaturated solution. The topochemical process involves solid-state reactions at the cement particle surface. The through-solution process dominates the topochemical process at the...
Aldehydes and Ketones with Water: Hydrate Formation01:20

Aldehydes and Ketones with Water: Hydrate Formation

An oxygen-based nucleophile, like water, can undergo addition reactions with aldehydes and ketones. The reaction leads to the formation of hydrates, also referred to as 1,1-diols or geminal diols.
The formation of hydrates is a reversible reaction. Hydrate formation is influenced by steric and electronic factors accompanying the alkyl substituents on the carbonyl group: The rate of hydrate formation increases with a decrease in the number of alkyl groups attached to the carbonyl carbon. Hence,...
Ionic Crystal Structures02:42

Ionic Crystal Structures

Ionic crystals consist of two or more different kinds of ions that usually have different sizes. The packing of these ions into a crystal structure is more complex than the packing of metal atoms that are the same size.
Most monatomic ions behave as charged spheres, and their attraction for ions of opposite charge is the same in every direction. Consequently, stable structures for ionic compounds result (1) when ions of one charge are surrounded by as many ions as possible of the opposite...
Entropy and Solvation02:05

Entropy and Solvation

The process of surrounding a solute with solvent is called solvation. It involves evenly distributing the solute within the solvent. The rule of thumb for determining a solvent for a given compound is that like dissolves like. A good solvent has molecular characteristics similar to those of the compound to be dissolved. For example, polar solutions dissolve polar solutes, and apolar solvents dissolve apolar solutes. A polar solvent is a solvent that has a high dielectric constant (ϵ ≥ 15); an...
Strength and Heat of Hydration01:29

Strength and Heat of Hydration

The hydration of cement is an exothermic reaction in which heat is generated as cement hydrates. This heat of hydration is critical to cement's strength development. The rate at which this heat is generated affects the temperature rise, with a majority of the heat being released early in the hydration process, half within the first three days, and about 75% within the first week.
The heat of hydration for each cement compound is significant; for instance, tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 6, 2026

Methane Hydrate Crystallization on Sessile Water Droplets
08:46

Methane Hydrate Crystallization on Sessile Water Droplets

Published on: May 26, 2021

Clathrate hydrates in nature.

Keith C Hester1, Peter G Brewer

  • 1Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA. khester@mbari.org

Annual Review of Marine Science
|December 15, 2010
PubMed
Summary

Natural clathrate hydrates research has advanced significantly, revealing new seafloor discoveries and exploring their potential as an energy resource. Key questions persist regarding their role in climate change and economic viability.

Area of Science:

  • Geoscience
  • Oceanography
  • Climate Science

Background:

  • Scientific understanding of natural clathrate hydrates has expanded rapidly.
  • Recent discoveries include extensive seafloor hydrate exposures and exotic hydrates linked to CO2 venting.
  • New in-situ examination tools and modeling techniques have been developed.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To summarize recent advancements in natural clathrate hydrate research.
  • To highlight key unresolved questions concerning climate change impacts and historical dissociation.
  • To assess the potential of hydrates as an energy resource.

Main Methods:

  • In-situ examination of the solid phase.
  • Modeling of natural hydrate systems.
  • Analysis of stable isotopic evidence.

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Protocol for Measuring the Thermal Properties of a Supercooled Synthetic Sand-water-gas-methane Hydrate Sample
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Protocol for Measuring the Thermal Properties of a Supercooled Synthetic Sand-water-gas-methane Hydrate Sample

Published on: March 21, 2016

A Microfluidic Approach for the Study of Ice and Clathrate Hydrate Crystallization
08:01

A Microfluidic Approach for the Study of Ice and Clathrate Hydrate Crystallization

Published on: August 18, 2022

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 6, 2026

Methane Hydrate Crystallization on Sessile Water Droplets
08:46

Methane Hydrate Crystallization on Sessile Water Droplets

Published on: May 26, 2021

Protocol for Measuring the Thermal Properties of a Supercooled Synthetic Sand-water-gas-methane Hydrate Sample
09:46

Protocol for Measuring the Thermal Properties of a Supercooled Synthetic Sand-water-gas-methane Hydrate Sample

Published on: March 21, 2016

A Microfluidic Approach for the Study of Ice and Clathrate Hydrate Crystallization
08:01

A Microfluidic Approach for the Study of Ice and Clathrate Hydrate Crystallization

Published on: August 18, 2022

Main Results:

  • Spectacular new findings of complex hydrates on the seafloor.
  • Progress in modeling natural hydrate systems.
  • Discovery of exotic hydrates associated with CO2 venting.
  • Advancements in exploring subpermafrost Arctic hydrates as an energy resource.

Conclusions:

  • Significant progress has been made in understanding natural clathrate hydrates.
  • Unresolved questions remain about their role in climate change and economic viability as an energy resource.
  • Ongoing international exploration is uncovering substantial hydrate deposits.