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Anatomy of Chloroplasts

Anatomy of Chloroplasts

Green algae and plants, including green stems and unripe fruit, harbor chloroplasts—the vital organelles where photosynthesis takes place. In plants, the highest density of chloroplasts is found in the mesophyll cells of leaves.

Photosystem II

Photosystem II

The multi-protein complex photosystem II (PS II) harvests photons and transfers their energy through its bound pigments to its reaction center, and ultimately to photosystem I (PSI) through the electron transport chain. The pigments responsible for caputirng the light energy in photosystems include chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids.
The pigment molecules are arranged across two photosystem domains — the antenna complex and the reaction center. The main aim of the pigment molecules...

Photoreceptors and Plant Responses to Light

Photoreceptors and Plant Responses to Light

Light plays a significant role in regulating the growth and development of plants. In addition to providing energy for photosynthesis, light provides other important cues to regulate a range of developmental and physiological responses in plants.

Light as Energy

Light as Energy

The energy required to carry out photosynthesis is light— typically electromagnetic radiation from the sun. The range of all possible wavelengths is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.
Photons
A photon is a discrete electromagnetic particle or bundle of energy. Photons are characterized by their frequency, wavelength, and amplitude, similar to the properties of a wave. Waves with higher frequencies transmit more energy and have shorter wavelengths than longer wavelengths that transmit less...

Photosystems

Photosystems

Photosystems are multiprotein complexes that form the functional units of photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. They are found embedded in the membrane of tiny sac-like structures called thylakoids placed inside the chloroplast.
Functioning of Photosystems
Photosystems contain many pigment molecules, such as chlorophylls and carotenoids, arranged in a particular organization across two domains — the antenna complex and the reaction center. The main aim of the pigment molecules...

The Anatomy of Chloroplasts

The Anatomy of Chloroplasts

Green algae and plants, including green stems and unripe fruit, harbor specialized organelles called chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis. They coordinate both stages of photosynthesis — the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions. The light-dependent reactions use sunlight to release oxygen and produce chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent reactions capture CO2 and use ATP and NADPH to produce sugar.
Structure of Chloroplasts
A...

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Updated: Jun 5, 2026

In Vitro Reconstitution of Light-harvesting Complexes of Plants and Green Algae

In Vitro Reconstitution of Light-harvesting Complexes of Plants and Green Algae

Published on: October 10, 2014

Chlorophyll breakdown in higher plants.

Stefan Hörtensteiner¹, Bernhard Kräutler

¹Institute of Plant Biology, University of Zurich, Zollikerstrasse 107, CH-8008 Zurich, Switzerland. shorten@botinst.uzh.ch

Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta

|December 21, 2010

Summary

This review details the breakdown of chlorophyll, a vital process in plant senescence and fruit ripening. It highlights the key enzyme, pheophorbide a oxygenase, and the physiological roles of chlorophyll catabolites.

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Area of Science:

Plant Biology
Biochemistry
Molecular Biology

Background:

Chlorophyll breakdown is a critical catabolic process during leaf senescence and fruit ripening.
Recent studies have elucidated a conserved chlorophyll breakdown pathway in land plants, identifying colorless linear tetrapyrroles as final products.
The enzyme pheophorbide a oxygenase initiates this pathway by opening the chlorin macrocycle.

Purpose of the Study:

To review structural information of chlorophyll catabolites.
To update knowledge on the biochemical reactions in chlorophyll breakdown.
To discuss the physiological significance of chlorophyll breakdown products.

Main Methods:

Literature review of structural and biochemical studies on chlorophyll catabolites.
Analysis of recent investigations into the roles of chlorophyll breakdown products in leaves and fruits.

Main Results:

Structure elucidation of colorless linear tetrapyrroles has been key to understanding the conserved chlorophyll breakdown pathway.
Pheophorbide a oxygenase is identified as the crucial enzyme initiating the breakdown cascade.
Evidence suggests chlorophyll catabolites may have physiological functions beyond pigment detoxification.

Conclusions:

The chlorophyll breakdown pathway is highly conserved in land plants, with pheophorbide a oxygenase as the central enzyme.
Chlorophyll catabolites, previously considered mere breakdown products, may possess important physiological roles in senescing tissues.
Further research into the functions of these catabolites is warranted.