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Alkyl Halides

Alkyl Halides

Structural Properties
Alkyl halides are halogen-substituted alkanes wherein one or more hydrogen atoms of an alkane is replaced by a halogen atom such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine. The carbon atom in an alkyl halide is bonded to the halogen atom, which is sp3-hybridized and exhibits a tetrahedral shape.
Unlike alkyl halides, compounds in which a halogen atom is bonded to an sp2 -hybridized carbon atom of a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C) are called vinyl halides. Whereas aryl...

Diazonium Group Substitution: –OH and –H

Diazonium Group Substitution: –OH and –H

Nitrous acid, a weak acid, is prepared in situ via the reaction of sodium nitrite with a strong acid under cold conditions. This nitrous acid prepared in situ reacts with primary arylamines to form arenediazonium salts. Such reactions are known as diazotization reactions. As shown in Figure 1, the formation of arenediazonium salts begins with the decomposition of nitrous acid in an acidic solution to give nitrosonium ions.

Naming Enantiomers

Naming Enantiomers

The naming of enantiomers employs the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog rules that involve assigning priorities to different substituent groups at a chiral center. Each enantiomer, being a distinct molecule, is assigned a unique name by the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog (CIP) rules, also called the R–S system. The prefix R- or S- attached to the chiral centers in an enantiomer is dependent on the spatial arrangement of the four substituents on the chiral center. The R–S system essentially comprises three steps:...

Indirect-Acting Cholinergic Agonists: Chemistry and Structure-Activity Relationship

Indirect-Acting Cholinergic Agonists: Chemistry and Structure-Activity Relationship

Indirect-acting cholinergic agonists are agents that interact with the acetylcholinesterase enzyme in the synaptic cleft, preventing the breakdown of acetylcholine into choline and acetate. Consequently, the concentration of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft increases. These agonists can be classified into reversible and irreversible inhibitors based on their duration of action.
Reversible inhibitors display short to medium durations of action. Short-acting agents include simple alcohols with...

Cholinergic Antagonists: Pharmacokinetics

Cholinergic Antagonists: Pharmacokinetics

Cholinergic antagonists—such as antimuscarinics—are available in oral, topical, ocular, parenteral, and inhalational formulations. Most antimuscarinics are oral formulations, while scopolamine is available as a topical patch, and ipratropium and tiotropium are available as inhalation aerosols or powders. Atropine, tropicamide, and cyclopentolate are topically instilled in the eye. Most antimuscarinics are lipid-soluble and readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and the conjunctiva.

Chirality at Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur

Chirality at Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur

Chirality is most prevalent in carbon-based tetrahedral compounds, but this important facet of molecular symmetry extends to sp3-hybridized nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur centers, including trivalent molecules with lone pairs. Here, the lone pair behaves as a functional group in addition to the other three substituents to form an analogous tetrahedral center that can be chiral.
A consequence of chirality is the need for enantiomeric resolution. While this is theoretically possible for all...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 5, 2026

Green Synthesis of Quinoline-Based Ionic Liquid

Green Synthesis of Quinoline-Based Ionic Liquid

Published on: September 27, 2024

(R)-(-)-3-Hydroxy-quinuclidinium chloride.

Miłosz Siczek¹, Tadeusz Lis

¹Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wrocław, 14 Joliot-Curie St, 50-383 Wrocław, Poland.

Acta Crystallographica. Section E, Structure Reports Online

|January 5, 2011

Summary

The quinuclidinium cation exhibits a distinct twist along its central axis. Crystal structure analysis reveals stabilization through hydrogen bonds, forming intricate chains.

Area of Science:

Crystallography
Chemical Physics

Background:

The quinuclidinium cation is a key structural motif in various chemical compounds.
Understanding cation conformation and intermolecular interactions is crucial for predicting material properties.

Purpose of the Study:

To elucidate the conformational characteristics of the quinuclidinium cation.
To investigate the hydrogen bonding network and crystal packing of the title compound.

Main Methods:

Single-crystal X-ray diffraction was employed to determine the molecular and crystal structure.
Analysis of N-C-C-C torsion angles provided insights into cation conformation.

Main Results:

The quinuclidinium cation displayed a significant twist along the C-N pseudo-threefold axis, with measured torsion angles of -16.0(1)°, -16.9(1)°, and -15.6(1)°.

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The crystal lattice is stabilized by a network of N-H⋯Cl and O-H⋯Cl hydrogen bonds.

These hydrogen bonds facilitate the formation of infinite chains extending along the a and b crystallographic axes.

Conclusions:

The study precisely characterized the conformational twist of the quinuclidinium cation.
The identified hydrogen bonding patterns explain the observed crystal structure and chain formation, offering insights into the solid-state behavior of this compound.