Pack-Mutator-like transposable elements (Pack-MULEs) induce directional modification of genes through biased...

In monocots, many genes demonstrate a significant negative GC gradient, meaning that the GC content declines along the orientation of transcription. Such a gradient is not observed in the genes of the dicot plant Arabidopsis. In addition, a lack of homology is often observed when comparing the 5' end of the coding region of orthologous genes in rice and Arabidopsis. The reasons for these differences have been enigmatic. The presence of GC-rich sequences at the 5' end of genes may influence the conformation of chromatin, the expression level of genes, as well as the recombination rate. Here we show that Pack-Mutator-like transposable elements (Pack-MULEs) that carry gene fragments specifically acquire GC-rich fragments and preferentially insert into the 5' end of genes. The resulting Pack-MULEs form independent, GC-rich transcripts with a negative GC gradient. Alternatively, the Pack-MULEs evolve into additional exons at the 5' end of existing genes, thus altering the GC content in those regions. We demonstrate that Pack-MULEs modify the 5' end of genes and are at least partially responsible for the negative GC gradient of genes in grasses. Such a unique and global impact on gene composition and gene structure has not been observed for any other transposable elements.