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Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement Schedules

Positive reinforcement is a powerful method for teaching new behaviors to both animals and humans. B.F. Skinner demonstrated this with his experiments using rats in a Skinner box. When a rat pressed a lever, it received a food pellet. This immediate reward encouraged the rat to repeat the behavior. This method, where a reward follows every instance of the behavior, is known as continuous reinforcement. It is highly effective for establishing new behaviors quickly.
Once a behavior is learned,...

Timing and Consequences on Behavior

Timing and Consequences on Behavior

In operant conditioning, the timing of reinforcement is crucial. For animals like rats and cats, immediate reinforcement (within a few seconds) is much more effective than delayed reinforcement. For example, a food reward for a rat needs to follow within 30 seconds of pressing a bar to be effective.
Humans, however, can respond to delayed reinforcers. We often make decisions between immediate small rewards and delayed larger rewards. This ability to delay gratification is a significant factor...

Incentive Theory: Pull Theory of Motivation

Incentive Theory: Pull Theory of Motivation

Incentive theory, or the "pull theory" of motivation, suggests that external rewards primarily drive behavior. Individuals are motivated to engage in activities when they anticipate a desirable outcome. This is why people often work hard for promotions or study intensively to achieve high grades. These incentives can be tangible, physical rewards such as money or promotions, or intangible, non-physical rewards like praise and social recognition.
The theory differentiates between intrinsic and...

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, a key concept in behavioral psychology, involves using reinforcement and punishment to alter the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. B.F. introduced this type of conditioning. Skinner focused on voluntary behaviors and the consequences that follow them, influencing whether these behaviors will be strengthened or diminished.
Reinforcement in operant conditioning can be positive or negative, both of which serve to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Positive...

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

In psychology, reinforcement is a key concept in behavior modification. B.F. Skinner demonstrated this with his experiments involving rats in what is known as a Skinner box. The rats learned to press a lever to receive food, a primary reinforcer that fulfilled their innate need for nourishment.
Effective reinforcers for humans vary depending on the individual and the context. Primary reinforcers, such as food, water, sleep, shelter, and pleasure, have inherent value and satisfy basic biological...

Reinforcement

Reinforcement

Positive and negative reinforcement are key concepts in operant conditioning, a learning process where the consequences of a behavior affect the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.
Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus, increasing the frequency of that behavior. For example:

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 5, 2026

A Conflict Model of Reward-seeking Behavior in Male Rats

A Conflict Model of Reward-seeking Behavior in Male Rats

Published on: February 20, 2019

Increases in rewards promote flexible behavior.

Y Jeremy Shen¹, Marvin M Chun

¹Department of Psychology, Yale University, Box 208205, New Haven, CT 06520-8205, USA. shenjeremy@gmail.com

Attention, Perception & Psychophysics

|January 26, 2011

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Relative reward increases enhance behavioral flexibility, improving task performance. Consistent high rewards, however, lead to rigid task execution, hindering adaptability.

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Last Updated: Jun 5, 2026

A Conflict Model of Reward-seeking Behavior in Male Rats

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Studying Food Reward and Motivation in Humans

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Published on: March 19, 2014

Area of Science:

Cognitive Psychology
Neuroeconomics
Behavioral Economics

Background:

Rewards motivate task performance but can reduce cognitive flexibility.
Understanding the nuanced effects of reward magnitude and variability on behavioral adaptation is crucial.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate how varying reward levels influence behavioral flexibility across different tasks.
To determine whether relative or absolute reward amounts have a greater impact on cognitive flexibility.

Main Methods:

Conducted six experiments with participants performing tasks under varying reward conditions (low to high).
Assessed behavioral flexibility through measures of task switching, visual search, and priming tasks.
Manipulated reward magnitude and consistency across trials.

Main Results:

Increasing reward levels from one trial to the next enhanced participants' flexibility in task preparation.
Consistent high rewards led to decreased flexibility, promoting adherence to previously successful strategies.
The observed flexibility enhancements generalized across executive and perceptual tasks.

Conclusions:

Relative, transient changes in reward are more effective in promoting behavioral flexibility than absolute reward amounts.
Behavioral flexibility is dynamically modulated by the recent history of reward, not just its magnitude.
These findings have implications for optimizing motivation and performance in dynamic environments.