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Condensins

Condensins

Condensins are large protein complexes that use ATP to fuel the assembly of chromosomes during mitosis. They transform the tangled, shapeless mass of post-interphase DNA into individualized chromosomes by compacting, organizing, and segregating chromosomal DNA.
The plant and animal cells contain two types of condensin complexes—condensin I and condensin II. Both complexes have five subunits: two SMC (Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes) subunits, a kleisin subunit, and two HEAT-repeat...

Condensins

Condensins

Condensins are large protein complexes that use ATP to fuel the assembly of chromosomes during mitosis. They transform the tangled, shapeless mass of post-interphase DNA into individualized chromosomes by compacting, organizing, and segregating chromosomal DNA.
The plant and animal cells contain two types of condensin complexes—condensin I and condensin II. Both complexes have five subunits: two SMC (Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes) subunits, a kleisin subunit, and two HEAT-repeat...

Polytene Chromosomes

Polytene Chromosomes

Polytene chromosomes are giant interphase chromosomes with several DNA strands placed side by side. They were discovered in the year 1881 by Balbiani in salivary glands, intestine, muscles, malpighian tubules, and hypoderm of larvae Chironomus plumosus. Hence, these are also called "Salivary gland chromosomes." These are found in insects of the order Diptera and Collembola; in certain organs of mammals; and synergids, antipodes of flowering plants. Polytene chromosomes are also regularly...

Lampbrush Chromosomes

Lampbrush Chromosomes

In 1882, Flemming observed lampbrush chromosomes (LBC) in salamander eggs. Later in 1892, Rückert observed LBCs in shark egg cells and coined the term "lampbrush chromosomes" because they looked like brushes used to clean kerosene lamps.
LBCs are made up of two pairs of conjugating homologous chromatids. Each chromatid consists of alternatively positioned regions of condensed-inactive chromatin and loosely placed-active side loops, which can be contracted and extended. The loops resemble the...

Chromatin Packaging

Chromatin Packaging

Each human somatic cell contains 6 billion base-pairs of DNA. Each base-pair is 0.34 nm long, which means that each diploid cell contains a staggering 2 meters of DNA. How is such a long DNA strand packed inside a nucleus measuring only 10 - 20 microns in diameter?
The chromatin
In combination with specialized DNA binding protein called Histones, the DNA double helix forms a compact DNA: protein complex called chromatin. The chromatin itself is further compacted into higher-order structures.

Chromatin Packaging

Chromatin Packaging

Each human somatic cell contains 6 billion base pairs of DNA. Each base pair is 0.34 nm long, meaning each diploid cell contains a staggering 2 meters of DNA. This long DNA strand is packed inside a nucleus measuring only 10-20 microns in diameter with the help of specialized DNA-binding proteins called histones. Together they form a compact DNA-protein complex called chromatin. The chromatin is further compacted into higher-order structures. The highest level of compaction is achieved during...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 4, 2026

Capturing Chromosome Conformation Across Length Scales

Capturing Chromosome Conformation Across Length Scales

Published on: January 20, 2023

Chromosome conformation by crosslinking: polymer physics matters.

Jörg Langowski¹

¹Division Biophysics of Macromolecules, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany. jl@dkfz.de

Nucleus (Austin, Tex.)

|February 18, 2011

Summary

Understanding how DNA folds within the cell nucleus is a major challenge in structural biology. This research explores the complex folding of the genome, a large and flexible biomolecule, to ensure efficient information access.

Keywords:

chromatin folding chromosome conformation capture deep sequencing fractal globule polymer chain models

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Last Updated: Jun 4, 2026

Capturing Chromosome Conformation Across Length Scales

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Published on: January 20, 2023

Hi-C: A Method to Study the Three-dimensional Architecture of Genomes.

Hi-C: A Method to Study the Three-dimensional Architecture of Genomes.

Published on: May 6, 2010

Getting an A with the 3Cs: Chromosome Conformation Capture for Undergraduates

Getting an A with the 3Cs: Chromosome Conformation Capture for Undergraduates

Published on: May 12, 2023

Area of Science:

Structural Biology
Genomics
Molecular Cell Biology

Background:

Genetic information is encoded in double-stranded DNA, a linear polymer.
Efficiently packing and accessing DNA within the cell nucleus is crucial for cellular function.
The genome's large size, flexibility, and cell-to-cell variability present significant structural challenges.

Purpose of the Study:

To advance the understanding of how genomic DNA chains fold to fit within the cell nucleus.
To investigate mechanisms ensuring efficient reading of genetic information from folded DNA.
To address the formidable problem of quantitatively describing the folded genome's structure.

Main Methods:

The abstract does not specify the main methods used in the study.

Main Results:

The abstract does not specify the main results of the study.

Conclusions:

The folding of the genome is a complex structural biology problem due to DNA's size and flexibility.
Variations in genome folding among individual cells add to the complexity.
Further research is needed to quantitatively describe genome structure and its implications for gene expression.