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Related Concept Videos

Insulin Formulations: Types and Delivery01:27

Insulin Formulations: Types and Delivery

Insulin preparations are categorized by their duration of action into short-acting and long-acting types. Two strategies are used to modify insulin's absorption and pharmacokinetic profile: slowing the absorption post-subcutaneous injection, or altering human insulin's amino acid sequence or protein structure. These changes retain the insulin's ability to bind to the insulin receptor, but alter its behavior in solution or after injection.
Short-acting insulins are divided into rapid-acting...
Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation01:25

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of pancreatic β-cells synthesizes preproinsulin, which consists of a signal peptide, A and B chains, and a C-peptide. Preproinsulin is then cleaved and folded into proinsulin, which translocates to the Golgi apparatus for sorting and packaging into secretory granules. In these granules, enzymatic clipping generates insulin and C-peptide.
Damage or functional impairment of β-cells inhibits insulin production, leading to diabetes. Diabetes treatment primarily uses...
Production of Pharmaceuticals01:30

Production of Pharmaceuticals

Industrial insulin production uses genetically engineered E. coli expressing a proinsulin gene controlled by a tryptophan promoter and containing a methionine linker for later cleavage. The cells also carry ampicillin resistance for selective growth. Seed cultures are stored at −80 °C and production begins by thawing a small amount to inoculate starter cultures, which are progressively scaled to a 50,000-L bioreactor. In the bioreactor, E. coli grow in nutrient-rich media under sterile, tightly...
Insulin: Dosing Regimen and Adverse Effects01:16

Insulin: Dosing Regimen and Adverse Effects

Insulin-replacement therapy usually includes both long-acting insulin (basal) and short-acting insulin (to cater to postprandial needs). In a diverse group of type 1 diabetes patients, the average daily insulin dose is typically 0.5-0.7 units/kg body weight. However, obese patients and pubertal adolescents may need more due to insulin resistance.
The basal dose constitutes about 40%-50% of the total daily dose, with the rest as premeal insulin. The mealtime insulin dose should mirror...
Insulin: The Receptor and Signaling Pathways01:28

Insulin: The Receptor and Signaling Pathways

Insulin action is mediated through a receptor tyrosine kinase, akin to the IGF-1 receptor. The number of receptors per cell varies significantly, from 40 on erythrocytes to 300,000 on adipocytes and hepatocytes. The insulin receptor consists of linked α/β subunit dimers, forming a heterotetramer glycoprotein with two extracellular α subunits and two β subunits spanning the membrane. The α subunits inhibit the inherent tyrosine kinase activity of the β subunits, but this inhibition is released...
Feedback Loops01:01

Feedback Loops

In most cases, excessive hormone production is prevented by negative feedback—a loop that starts with a stimulus inducing the release of a particular substance, like a hormone, to maintain a certain level before triggering a signal that results in a decrease in further release of the hormone.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 4, 2026

Improving IV Insulin Administration in a Community Hospital
12:08

Improving IV Insulin Administration in a Community Hospital

Published on: June 11, 2012

Closed-loop insulin delivery: from bench to clinical practice.

Roman Hovorka1

  • 1Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK. rh347@cam.ac.uk

Nature Reviews. Endocrinology
|February 24, 2011
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

The artificial pancreas, or automated closed-loop insulin delivery, is advancing diabetes treatment. Future systems will gradually integrate into clinical practice, starting with simpler overnight glucose control.

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Last Updated: Jun 4, 2026

Improving IV Insulin Administration in a Community Hospital
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Published on: June 11, 2012

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07:30

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Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Biomedical Engineering
  • Diabetes Technology

Background:

  • Automated closed-loop insulin delivery, or the artificial pancreas, has been a long-standing goal in diabetes management.
  • Early milestones include continuous glucose monitoring (1960s) and hospital-based systems (1970s).
  • Recent advancements focus on subcutaneous glucose monitoring and continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the design, components, and clinical outcomes of artificial pancreas systems.
  • To discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various automated closed-loop systems.
  • To explore potential future advancements in artificial pancreas technology.

Main Methods:

  • Review of historical research and technological developments in automated insulin delivery.
  • Analysis of current artificial pancreas system designs and their clinical results.
  • Discussion of different automated closed-loop system types and their limitations.

Main Results:

  • Significant momentum in artificial pancreas research over the past decade, driven by technological progress.
  • Focus shifting towards subcutaneous glucose sensing and insulin delivery.
  • Gradual clinical integration is anticipated, beginning with simpler applications.

Conclusions:

  • The artificial pancreas represents a significant evolution in diabetes treatment.
  • Technological advancements are enabling more sophisticated closed-loop systems.
  • Phased implementation, starting with basic functions, will likely precede widespread adoption.